Abstract
Irrigation has a critical role for crop production worldwide. In particular, irrigation is a major issue due to the growing food demand and climate change. Irrigation affects yields and the emission of greenhouse gases such as CO2 and N2O by soils. Here, we review the effect of irrigation on soil organic carbon and N2O emissions. We analysed 22 investigations in various regions of the world. Interactions between irrigation, soil and management factors are described. The main points are: (1) The influence of irrigation is strongly dependent on climate and initial soil organic carbon content. For instance, irrigation of cultivated desert soils led to an average increase of 90 % to over 500 % of soil organic carbon. (2) Irrigation of semiarid regions increases soil organic carbon by 11 % to 35 %. (3) No consistent effects of irrigation were observed in humid regions. In many cases, N2O emissions increase after precipitation or irrigation. (4) Comparison of N2O emissions from irrigated and non-irrigated fields shows that availability of reactive nitrogen compounds controls increased N2O emissions under irrigation, in most cases. Here, increases of about 50 % to 140 % in N2O emissions were reported.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abbasi MK, Adams WA (2000) Gaseous N emission during simultaneous nitrification–denitrification associated with mineral N fertilization to a grassland soil under field conditions. Soil Biol Biochem 32:1251–1259. doi:10.1016/S0038-0717(00)00042-0
Abdalla M, Jones M, Williams M (2010) Simulation of N2O fluxes from Irish arable soils: effect of climate change and management. Biol Fert Soils 46:247–260. doi:10.1007/s00374-009-0424-5
Alexandratos N, Bruinsma J (2012) World agriculture towards 2030/2050: the 2012 revision. ESA Working paper, Rome, FAO, No. 12–03
Amador JA, Görres JH, Savin MC (2005) Role of soil water content in carbon and nitrogen dynamics of Lumbricus terrestris L. burrow soil. Appl Soil Ecol 28:15–22. doi:10.1016/j.apsoil.2004.06.009
Amézketa E (1999) Soil aggregate stability: a review. J Sustain Agric 14:83–151
Amha Y, Bohne H (2011) Denitrification from the horticultural peats: effects of pH, nitrogen, carbon and moisture contents. Biol Fert Soils 47:293–302. doi:10.1007/s00374-010-0536-y
Ball BC, Crichton I, Horgan GW (2008) Dynamics of upward and downward N2O and CO2 fluxes in ploughed or no-tilled soils in relation to water-filled pore space, compaction and crop presence. Soil Till Res 101:20–30. doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.05.012
Barzegar AR, Rengasamy P, Oades JN (1995) Effects of clay type and rate of wetting on the mellowing of compacted soils. Geoderma 68:39–40. doi:10.1016/0016-7061(95)00022-g
Beare MH, Gregorich EG, St-Georges P (2009) Compaction effects on CO2 and N2O production during drying and rewetting of soil. Soil Biol Biochem 41:611–621. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.12.024
Blanco-Canqiu H, Lal R (2004) Mechanisms of carbon sequestration in soil aggregates. Crit Rev Plant Sci 23:481–504. doi:10.1080/07352680490886842
Blanco-Canqui H, Klocke NL, Schlegel AJ, Stone LR, Rice CW (2010) Impacts of deficit irrigation on carbon sequestration and soil physical properties under no-till. Soil Sci Soc Am J 74:1301–1309. doi:10.2136/sssaj2009.0364
Bordovsky DG, Choudhary M, Gerard CJ (1999) Effect of tillage, cropping, and residue management on soil properties in the Texas Rolling Plains. Soil Sci 164:331–340. doi:10.1097/00010694-199905000-00005
Bremner JM (1997) Sources of nitrous oxide in soils. Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst 49:7–16. doi:10.1023/a:1009798022569
Bruinsma J (2009) The resource outlook to 2050: by how much do land, water and crop yields need to increase by 2050? How to feed the world in 2050. Proceedings of a technical meeting of experts. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), Rome, Italy, http://www.fao.org/wsfs/forum2050/wsfs-background-documents/wsfs-expert-papers/en/ Accessed 10 December 2012
Chatskikh D, Olesen JE (2007) Soil tillage enhanced CO2 and N2O emissions from loamy sand soil under spring barley. Soil Till Res 97:5–18. doi:10.1016/j.still.2007.08.004
Clayton H, McTaggart IP, Parker J, Swan L (1997) Nitrous oxide emissions from fertilised grassland: a 2-year study of the effects of N fertiliser from environmental conditions. Biol Fertil Soils 25:252–260. doi:10.1007/s003740050311
De Bona FD, Bayer C, Dieckow J, Bergamaschi H (2008) Soil quality assessed by carbon management index in a subtropical Acrisol subjected to tillage systems and irrigation. Aust J Soil Res 46:469–475. doi:10.1071/sr08018
Degens BP, Sparling GP (1995) Repeated wet–dry cycles do not accelerate the mineralization of organic C involved in the macro-aggregation of a sandy loam soil. Plant Soil 175:197–203. doi:10.1007/BF00011355
Denef K, Stewart CE, Brenner J, Paustian K (2008) Does long-term center-pivot irrigation increase soil carbon stocks in semi-arid agro-ecosystems? Geoderma 145:121–129. doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2008.03.002
Deng X-P, Shan L, Inanaga S, Inoue M (2005) Water-saving approaches for improving wheat production. J Sci Food Agric 85:1379–1388. doi:10.1002/jsfa.2101
Dersch G, Bohm K (2001) Effects of agronomic practices on the soil carbon storage potential in arable farming in Austria. Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst 60:49–55. doi:10.1023/a:1012607112247
Dexter AR (1988) Advances in characterization of soil structure. Soil Till Res 11:199–238. doi:10.1016/0167-1987(88)90002-5
Dobbie KE, Smith A (2003) Nitrous oxide emissions factors for agricultural soils in Great Britain: the impact of soil water-filled pore space and other controlling variables. Glob Change Biol 9:204–218. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2486.2003.00563.x
Drastig K, Prochnow A, Baumecker M, Berg W, Brunsch R (2011) Agricultural water management in Brandenburg. Erde 142:119–140
Elmi AA, Madramootoo C, Hamel C, Liu A (2003) Denitrification and nitrous oxide to nitrous oxide plus dinitrogen ratios in the soil profile under three tillage systems. Biol Fert Soils 38:340–348. doi:10.1007/s00374-003-0663-9
Ellert BH, Janzen HH (2008) Nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide and methane emissions from irrigated cropping systems as influenced by legumes, manure and fertilizer. Can J Soil Sci 88:207–217. doi:10.4141/CJSS06036
Ellmer F, Baumecker M (2002) 65 years long-term experiments at Thyrow. Results for sustainable crop production at Sandy Soils. Arch Acker Pfl Boden 48:521–531. doi:10.1080/03650340215639
Entry JA, Sojka RE, Shewmaker GE (2004) Irrigation increases inorganic carbon in agricultural soils. Environ Manage 33:309–317. doi:10.1007/s00267-003-9140-3
Entry JA, Mills D, Mathee K, Jayachandran K, Sojka RE, Narasimhan G (2008) Influence of irrigated agriculture on soil microbial diversity. Appl Soil Ecol 40:146–154. doi:10.1016/j.apsoil.2008.03.012
Fallahzade J, Hajabbasi MA (2012) The effects of irrigation and cultivation on the quality of desert soil in central Iran. Land Degrad Dev 23:53–61. doi:10.1002/ldr.1049
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) Statistical yearbook (2010) http://www.fao.org/economic/ess/ess-publications/ess-yearbook/ess-yearbook2010/yearbook2010-reources/en/ Accessed 22 August 2011
Getaneh F, Deressa A, Negassa W (2007) Influence of small scale irrigation on selected soil chemical properties. Tropentag, Witzenhausen, Germany, 2007 October 9–11
Gillabel J, Denef K, Brenner J, Merckx R, Paustian K (2007) Carbon sequestration and soil aggregation in center-privot irrigated and dryland cultivated farming systems. Soil Sci Soc Am J 71:1020–1028. doi:10.2136/sssaj2006.0215
Gregorich EG, Rochette P, St-Georges P, Mckim UF, Chan C (2007) Tillage effects on N2O emissions from soils under corn and soybeans in Eastern Canada. Can J Soil Sci 88:153–161. doi:10.4141/CJSS06041
Hao X, Chang C, Carefoot JM, Janzen HH, Ellert BH (2001) Nitrous oxide emissions from an irrigated soil as affected by fertilizer and straw management. Nutr Cycl Agroecosys 60:1–8. doi:10.1023/A:1012603732435
Horváth L, Grosz B, Machon A, Tuba Z, Nagy Z, Czóbel SZ, Balogh J, Péli E, Fòti SZ, Weidinger T, Pintér K, Führer E (2010) Estimation of nitrous oxide emissions from Hungarian semi-arid sandy and loess grasslands; effect of soil parameters, grazing, irrigation and use of fertilizer. Agr Ecosyst Environ 139:255–263. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2010.08.011
Huang S, Pant HK, Lu J (2007) Effects of water regimes on nitrous oxide emission from soils. Ecol Eng 31:9–15. doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2007.04.001
Hutchinson GL, Mosier AR (1979) Nitrous oxide emissions from an irrigated cornfield. Science 205:1125–1127. doi:10.1126/science.205.4411.1125
Jabro JD, Sainju U, Stevens WB, Evans RG (2008) Carbon dioxide flux as affected by tillage and irrigation in soil converted from perennial forages to annual crops. J Environ Manage 88:1478–1484. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.07.012
Jha PB, Singh JS, Kashyap AK (1996) Dynamics of viable nitrifier community and nutrient availability in dry tropical forest habitat as affected by cultivation and soil texture. Plant Soil 180:277–285. doi:10.1007/bf00015311
Kallenbach CM, Rolston DE, Horwath WR (2010) Cover cropping affects soil N2O and CO2 emissions differently depending on type of irrigation. Agr Ecosyst Environ 137:251–260. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2010.02.010
Kavdir Y, Hellebrand HJ, Kern J (2008) Seasonal variations of nitrous oxide emissions in relation to nitrogen fertilization and energy crop types in sandy soil. Soil Till Res 98:175–186. doi:10.1016/j.still.2007.11.002
King AP, Evatt KJ, Six J, Poch RM, Rolston DE, Hopmans JW (2009) Annual carbon and nitrogen loadings for a furrow-irrigated field. Agr Water Manage 96:925–930. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2009.01.001
Kochsiek AE, Knops JMH, Walters DT, Arkebauer TJ (2009) Impacts of management on decomposition balance in irrigated and rainfed no till agricultural systems. Agr Forest Meteorol 149:1983–1993. doi:10.1016/j.agrformet.2009.07.004
Kong AYY, Six J, Bryant DC, Denison RF, van Kessel C (2005) The relationship between carbon input, aggregation, and soil organic carbon stabilization in sustainable cropping systems. Soil Sci Soc Am J 69:1078–1085. doi:10.2136/sssaj2004.0215
Lal R (2004) Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food security. Science 304:1623–1627. doi:10.1126/science.1097396
Lehrsch GA, Sojka RE, Carter DL, Jolley PM (1991) Freezing effects on aggregate stability affected by texture, mineralogy, and organic matter. Soil Sci Soc Am J 55:1401–1406
Li C, Frolking S, Butterbach-Bahl K (2005) Carbon sequestration in arable soils is likely to increase nitrous oxide emissions, offsetting reductions in climate radiative forcing. Clim Chang 72:321–338. doi:10.1007/s10584-005-6791-5
Li C, Frolking S, Crocker GJ, Grace PR, Klír J, Körchens M, Poulton PR (1997) Simulating trends in soil organic carbon in long-term experiments using the DNDC model. Geoderma 81:45–60. doi:10.1016/S0016-7061(97)00080-3
Li XG, Li YK, Li FM, Ma Q, Zhang PL, Yin P (2009) Changes in soil organic carbon, nutrients and aggregation after conversion of native desert soil into irrigated arable land. Soil Till Res 104:263–269. doi:10.1016/j.still.2009.03.002
Li XH, Li FM, Rengel Z, Bhupinderpal S, Wang ZF (2006) Cultivation effects on temporal changes of organic carbon and aggregate stability in desert soil of Hexi Corridor in China. Soil Till Res 91:22–29. doi:10.1016/j.still.2005.10.004
Lin S, Iqbal J, Hu R, Wu J, Zhao J, Ruan L, Malghani S (2011) Nitrous oxide emissions from rape field as affected by nitrogen fertilizer management: a case study in Central China. Atmos Environ 45:1775–1779. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.01.003
Lindberg N, Engtsson JB, Persson T (2002) Effect of experimental irrigation and drought on the composition and diversity of soil fauna in a coniferous stand. J Appl Ecol 39:924–936. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2664.2002.00769.x
Liu L, Greaver TL (2009) A review of nitrogen enrichment effects on three biogenic GHGs: the CO2 sink may be largely offset by stimulated N2O and CH4 emission. Ecol Lett 12:1103–1117. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01351.x
Liu CY, Holst J, Brüggemann N, Butterbach-Bahl K, Yao ZS, Han SH, Han XG, Zheng XH (2008) Effects of irrigation on nitrous oxide, methane and carbon dioxide fluxes in an inner Mongolian steppe. Adv Atmos Sci 25:748–756. doi:10.1007/s00376-008-0748-3
Liu CY, Wang K, Meng S, Zheng XH, Zhou ZX, Han SH, Chen D, Yang ZP (2011) Effects of irrigation, fertilization and crop straw management on nitrous oxide and nitric oxide emissions from a wheat-maize rotation field in northern China. Agr Ecosyst Environ 140:226–233. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2010.12.009
Liu CY, Zheng XH, Zhou ZX, Han SH, Wang YH, Wang K, Liang WG, Li M, Chen DL, Yang ZP (2010) Nitrous oxide and nitric oxide emissions from an irrigated cotton field in Northern China. Plant Soil 332:123–134. doi:10.1007/s11104-009-0278-5
Livesly SJ, Dougherty BJ, Smith AJ, Navaud D, Wylie LJ, Arndt SK (2010) Soil-atmosphere exchange of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide in urban garden systems: impact of irrigation, fertilizer and mulch. Urban Ecosyst 13:273–293. doi:10.1007/s11252-009-0119-6
Loecke TD, Robertson GP (2009) Soil resource heterogeneity in terms of litter aggregation promotes nitrous oxide fluxes and slows decomposition. Soil Biol Biochem 41:228–235. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.10.017
Mahmood T, Ali R, Iqbal J, Robab U (2008) Nitrous oxide emissions from an irrigated cotton field under semiarid subtropical conditions. Biol Fertil Soils 44:773–781. doi:10.1007/s00374-008-0276-4
Mariko S, Urano T, Asanuma J (2007) Effects of irrigation on CO2 and CH4 fluxes from Mongolian steppe soil. J Hydrol 333:118–123. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.07.027
Martens DA, Emmerich W, Mclain JET, Johnsen TN (2005) Atmospheric carbon mitigation potential of agricultural management in southwestern USA. Soil Till Res 83:95–119. doi:10.1016/j.still.2005.02.011
Mitra S, Singh S, Bandyopahyay SK, Singh CS (2006) Effect of irrigation, N, and bio-fertilizers on yield and nutrient uptake by wheat. Trop Agr 83:87–94
Mulla DJ, Huyck LM, Reganold JP (1992) Temporal variation in soil aggregate stability on conventional and alternative farms. Soil Sci Soc Am J 56:1620–1624
Mutegi JK, Munkholm LJ, Petersen BM, Hansen EM, Petersen SO (2010) Nitrous oxide emissions and controls as influenced by tillage and crop residue management strategy. Soil Biol Biochem 42:1701–1711. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2010.06.004
Nelson SD, Terry RE (1996) The effects of soil physical properties and irrigation method on denitrification. Soil Sci 161:242–249. doi:10.1097/00010694-199604000-00005
O’Connel AM (1990) Microbial decomposition (respiration) of litter in eucalypt forests of south-western Australia: an empirical model based on laboratory incubations. Soil Biol Biochem 22:153–160. doi:10.1016/0038-0717(90)90080-J
Ogle SM, Breidt FJ, Paustian K (2005) Agricultural management impacts on soil organic carbon storage under moist and dry climatic conditions of temperate and tropical regions. Biogeochemistry 72:87–121. doi:10.1007/s10533-004-0360-2
Phillips RL (2008) Denitrification in cropping systems at sub-zero soil temperatures. A review. Agron Sustain Dev 28:87–93. doi:10.1051/agro:2007045
Potthoff M, Dyckmans J, Flessa H, Muhs A, Beese F, Joergensen RG (2005) Dynamics of maize (Zea mays L.) leaf straw mineralization as affected by the presence of soil and the availability of nitrogen. Soil Biol Biochem 37:1259–1266. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2004.11.022
Presley DR, Ransom MD, Kluitenberg GJ, Finnell PR (2004) Effects of thirty years of irrigation on the genesis and morphology of two semiarid soils in Kansas. Soil Sci Soc Am J 68:1916–1926
Pulleman MM, Six J, Uyl A, Marinissen JCY, Jongmans AG (2005) Earthworms and management affect organic matter incorporation and microaggregate formation in agricultural soils. Appl Soil Ecol 29:1–15. doi:10.1016/j.apsoil.2004.10.003
Rillig MC, Wright SF, Kimball BA, Pinter PJ, Wall GW, Ottman MJ, Leavitt SW (2001) Elevated carbon dioxide and irrigation effects on water stable aggregates in a sorghum field: a possible role for arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Glob Change Biol 7:333–337. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2486.2001.00404.x
Rilling MC, Mummey DL (2006) Mycorrhizas and soil structure. New Phytol 171:41–53. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2006.01750.x
Robertson GP, Paul EA, Harwood RR (2000) Greenhouse gases in intensive agriculture: contributions of individual gases to the radiative forcing of the atmosphere. Science 289:1922–1925. doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1922
Rochette P (2008) No-till only increases N2O emissions in poorly-aerated soils. Soil Till Res 101:97–100. doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.07.011
Rochette P, Tremblay N, Fallon E, Angers DA, Chantign MH, MacDonald JD, Bertrand N, Parent L-É (2010) N2O emissions from an irrigated and non-irrigated organic soil in eastern Canada as influenced by N fertilizer addition. Eur J Soil Sci 61:186–196. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2389.2009.01222.x
Roldan A, Salinas-Garcia JR, Alguacil MM, Caravaca F (2005) Changes in soil enzyme activity, fertility, aggregation and C sequestration mediated by conservation tillage practices and water regime in a maize field. Appl Soil Ecol 30:11–20. doi:10.1016/j.apsoil.2005.01.004
Ruser R, Flessa H, Russow R, Schmidt G, Buegger F, Munch JC (2006) Emissions of N2O, N2 and CO2 from soil fertilized with nitrate: effect of compaction, soil moisture and rewetting. Soil Biol Biochem 38:263–274. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2005.05.005
Rusu T et al (2008) The influence of minimum soil tillage systems on water and humus conservation in some soils of Romania. Agricultural and biosystems engineering for a sustainable world. International Conference on Agricultural Engineering, Hersonissos, Crete, Greece, pp 177–183, 23–25 June 2008
Sanchez-Martin L, Meijide A, Garcia-Torres L, Vallejo A (2010) Combination of drip irrigation and organic fertilizer for mitigating emissions of nitrogen oxides in semiarid climate. Agr Ecosyst Environ 137:99–107. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2010.01.006
Scheer C, Wassmann R, Kienzler K, Ibragimov N, Eschanov R (2008) Nitrous oxide emissions from fertilized cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) in the Aral Sea Basin, Uzbekistan: influence of nitrogen applications and irrigation practices. Soil Biol Biochem 40:290–301. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2007.08.007
Schlesinger WH (2000) Some cautions amidst optimism. Agr Ecosyst Environ 82:121–127
Shainberg I, Levy GJ, Rengasamy P, Frenkel H (1992) Aggregate stability and seal formation as affected by drops impact energy and soil amendments. Soil Sci 154:113–119. doi:10.1097/00010694-199208000-00004
Simojoki A, Jaakkola A (2000) Effect of nitrogen fertilization, cropping and irrigation on soil air composition and nitrous oxide emissions in a loamy clay. Eur J Soil Sci 51:413–424. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2389.2000.00308.x
Šimon T, Javůrek M, Mikanová O, Vach M (2009) The influence of tillage systems on soil organic matter and soil hydrophobicity. Soil Till Res 105:44–48
Six J, Bossuyt H, Degryze S, Denef K (2004) A history of research on the link between (micro)aggregates, soil biota, and soil organic matter dynamics. Soil Till Res 79:7–31. doi:10.1016/j.still.2004.03.008
Smith P, Goulding KWT, Smith KA, Powlson DS, Smith JU, Falloon P, Coleman K (2000) Including trace gas fluxes in estimates of the carbon mitigation potential of UK agricultural land. Soil Use Manage 16:251–259. doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.2000.tb00204.x
Stubbs TL, Kennedy AC, Schillinger WF (2004) Soil ecosystem changes during the transition to no-till cropping. J Crop Imp 11:105–135. doi:10.1300/J411v11n01_06
Su YZ, Yang R, Liu WJ, Wang XF (2010) Evolution of soil structure and fertility after conversion of native sandy desert soil to irrigated cropland in arid region, China. Soil Sci 175:246–254. doi:10.1097/SS.0b013e3181e04a2d
Thierron V, Laudelout H (1996) Contribution of root respiration to total CO2 efflux from the soil of a deciduous forest. Can J Forest Res 26:1142–1148. doi:10.1139/x26-127
Utomo WH, Dexter AR (1982) Changes in soil aggregate water stability induced by wetting and drying cycles in non-saturated soil. J Soil Sci 33:623–637. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2389.1982.tb01794.x
Wu L, Wood Y, Jiang P, Li L, Pan G, Lu J, Chang AC, Enloe HA (2008) Carbon sequestration and dynamics of two irrigated agricultural soil in California. Soil Sci Soc Am J 72:808–814. doi:10.2136/sssaj2007.0074
Wulf S, Lehmann J, Zech W (1999) Emissions of nitrous oxide from runoff-irrigated and rainfed soils in semiarid north-west Kenya. Agr Ecosyst Environ 72:201–205. doi:10.1016/S0167-8809(98)00172-8
Yao Z, Zhou Z, Zheng Y, Xie B, Mei B, Wang R, Butterbach-Bahl K, Zhu J (2010) Effects of organic matter incorporation on nitrous oxide emissions from rice-wheat rotation ecosystems in China. Plant Soil 327:315–330. doi:10.1007/s11104-009-0056-4
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
About this article
Cite this article
Trost, B., Prochnow, A., Drastig, K. et al. Irrigation, soil organic carbon and N2O emissions. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 33, 733–749 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-013-0134-0
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-013-0134-0