Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Optimized removal process and tailored adsorption mechanism of crystal violet and methylene blue dyes by activated carbon derived from mixed orange peel and watermelon rind using microwave-induced ZnCl2 activation

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Releasing wastewater containing organic dyes into water bodies generates a variety of hazards for humans and marine life. Thus, developing effective adsorbents to remove organic dyes from wastewater is critical. Herein, a mixture of the orange peel (OP) and watermelon rind (WR) wastes was converted into a mesoporous activated carbon (OPWRAC) via microwave-induced ZnCl2. Several analytical techniques such as XRD, N2 adsorption–desorption isotherms, FTIR, pHpzc, and SEM–EDX were applied to characterize the physicochemical properties of OPWRAC. Subsequently, the adsorptive efficiency of OPWRAC was comprehensively explored towards the removal of two structurally different organic dyes, namely, crystal violet (CV) and methylene blue (MB). The operational adsorption conditions such as OPWRAC dose (0.04–0.1 g) coded as (A), solution pH (4–10) coded as (B), and contact time (10–60 min) coded as (C) were statistically optimized using the response surface methodology-Box-Behnken design (RSM-BBD). The adsorption isotherm data for CV and MB dyes agree with the Freundlich model, and the kinetic data can be explained by the pseudo-second-order model. Thus, OPWRAC displays remarkable adsorption capacity for capturing CV (137.8 mg/g) and MB (200.7 mg/g). The tailored adsorption mechanism of CV and MB by the OPWRAC indicates the involvement of several types of electrostatic forces, π-π stacking, pore filling, and H-bonding. The output of this research shows the feasibility of converting the mixture of OP and WR into promising activated carbon with potential application for capturing two structurally cationic dyes from an aqueous environment.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

References

  1. Wang Z, Zhang Y, Kang S, Yang L, Shi H, Tripathee L, Gao T (2021) Research progresses of microplastic pollution in freshwater systems. Sci Total Environ 795:148888–148899

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Tian T, Liu M, Li Y, Han J, Ren L, Lorenz H, Chen J (2022) β-Cyclodextrin carbon-based nanoparticles with a core–shell–shell structure for efficient adsorption of crystal violet and bisphenol A. Particuol 62:88–97

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Temel F, Turkyilmaz M, Kucukcongar S (2020) Removal of methylene blue from aqueous solutions by silica gel supported calix [4] arene cage: investigation of adsorption properties. Eur Polym J 125:109540–109551

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Zaharia MM, Vasiliu AL, Trofin MA, Pamfil D, Bucatariu F, Racovita S, Mihai M (2021) Design of multifunctional composite materials based on acrylic ion exchangers and CaCO3 as sorbents for small organic molecules. React Funct Polym 166:104997–105012

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. de Toledo WDMC, Pinheiro RA, Trava-Airoldi VJ, Corat EJ (2022) Development of boron-doped diamond (BDD) deposited on carbon nanotubes (CNT) to form BDD/CNT structures relevant for electrochemical degradation. Diamond Relat Mater 127:109159–1109170

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Jawad AH, Nawi MA (2012) Characterizations of the photocatalytically-oxidized cross-linked chitosan-glutaraldehyde and its application as a sub-layer in the TiO2/CS-GLA bilayer photocatalyst system. J Polym Environ 20(3):817–829

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Suhaimi A, Abdulhameed AS, Jawad AH, Yousef TA, AlDuaij OK, ALOthman ZA, Wilson LD (2022) Production of large surface area activated carbon from a mixture of carrot juice pulp and pomegranate peel using microwave radiation-assisted ZnCl2 activation: an optimized removal process and tailored adsorption mechanism of crystal violet dye. Diamond Relat Mater 130:109456–109467

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Ihaddaden S, Aberkane D, Boukerroui A, Robert D (2022) Removal of methylene blue (basic dye) by coagulation-flocculation with biomaterials (bentonite and Opuntia ficus indica). J Water Process Eng 49:102952–102964

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Reshadi MAM, Bazargan A, McKay G (2020) A review of the application of adsorbents for landfill leachate treatment: focus on magnetic adsorption. Sci Total Environ 731:138863–138878

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Koyuncu F, Güzel F, İnal İIG (2022) High surface area and supermicroporous activated carbon from capsicum (Capsicum annuum L.) industrial processing pulp via single-step KOH-catalyzed pyrolysis: production optimization, characterization and its some water pollutants removal and supercapacitor performance. Diamond Relat Mater 124:108920–108933

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Sultana M, Rownok MH, Sabrin M, Rahaman MH, Alam SN (2022) A review on experimental chemically modified activated carbon to enhance dye and heavy metals adsorption. Clean Eng Technol 6:100382–100396

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Jahan K, Singh V, Mehrotra N, Rathore K, Verma V (2021) Development of activated carbon from KOH activation of pre-carbonized chickpea peel residue and its performance for removal of synthetic dye from drinking water. Biomass Conv Bioref https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-021-01938-4.

  13. Gayathiri M, Pulingam T, Lee KT, Sudesh K (2022) Activated carbon from biomass waste precursors: factors affecting production and adsorption mechanism. Chemosphere 294:133764–133776

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Hoang AT, Kumar S, Lichtfouse E, Cheng CK, Varma RS, Senthilkumar N, Nguyen XP (2022) Remediation of heavy metal polluted waters using activated carbon from lignocellulosic biomass: an update of recent trends. Chemosphere 302:134825–134848

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Razali NS, Abdulhameed AS, Jawad AH, ALOthman ZA, Yousef TA, Al-Duaij OK, Alsaiari NS (2022) High-surface-area-activated carbon derived from mango peels and seeds wastes via microwave-induced ZnCl2 activation for adsorption of methylene blue dye molecules: statistical optimization and mechanism. Mol. 27(20):6947–6965

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Isinkaralar K, Gullu G, Turkyilmaz A (2022) Experimental study of formaldehyde and BTEX adsorption onto activated carbon from lignocellulosic biomass. Biomass Conver Bio https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-021-02287-y

  17. Jimoh OS, Ibrahim AO, Bello OS (2022) Metformin adsorption onto activated carbon prepared by acid activation and carbonization of orange peel. Int J Phyto https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2022.2064815

  18. Zhen XT, Yu YL, Shi MZ, Zhu SC, Yan TC, Yue ZX, Cao J (2022) Activated carbon derived from hawthorn kernel waste for rapid adsorption of fungicides. Surf Interfaces 28:101700–101713

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Isinkaralar K (2022) High-efficiency removal of benzene vapor using activated carbon from Althaea officinalis L. biomass as a lignocellulosic precursor. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29:66728–66740

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Rashidi NA, Chai YH, Ismail IS, Othman MFH, Yusup S (2022) Biomass as activated carbon precursor and potential in supercapacitor applications. Biomass Conver. Bio https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-022-02351-1

  21. Hijab M, Parthasarathy P, Mackey HR, Al-Ansari T, McKay G (2021) Minimizing adsorbent requirements using multi-stage batch adsorption for malachite green removal using microwave date-stone activated carbons. Chem Eng Process-Process Intensif 167:108318–108329

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Şahin Ö, Saka C, Ceyhan AA, Baytar O (2015) Preparation of high surface area activated carbon from Elaeagnus angustifolia seeds by chemical activation with ZnCl2 in one-step treatment and its iodine adsorption. Sep Sci Technol 50(6):886–891

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Luo X, Cai Y, Liu L, Zeng J (2019) Cr (VI) adsorption performance and mechanism of an effective activated carbon prepared from bagasse with a one-step pyrolysis and ZnCl2 activation method. Cellulose 26(8):4921–4934

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Yağmur HK, Kaya İ (2021) Synthesis and characterization of magnetic ZnCl2-activated carbon produced from coconut shell for the adsorption of methylene blue. J Mol Struct 1232:130071–130083

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Cai Y, Liu L, Tian H, Yang Z, Luo X (2019) Adsorption and desorption performance and mechanism of tetracycline hydrochloride by activated carbon-based adsorbents derived from sugar cane bagasse activated with ZnCl2. Molecules 24(24):4534–4551

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Nassar H, Zyoud A, El-Hamouz A, Tanbour R, Halayqa N, Hilal HS (2020) Aqueous nitrate ion adsorption/desorption by olive solid waste-based carbon activated using ZnCl2. Sustain Chem Pharm 18:100335–100344

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Jayabalakrishnan RM, Maheswari M, Boomiraj K, Oumabady S (2021) Coconut shell derived ZnCl2 activated carbon for malachite green dye removal. Water Sci Technol 83(5):1167–1182

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Dalvand A, Nabizadeh R, Ganjali MR, Khoobi M, Nazmara S, Mahvi AH (2016) Modeling of Reactive Blue 19 azo dye removal from colored textile wastewater using L-arginine-functionalized Fe3O4 nanoparticles: optimization, reusability, kinetic and equilibrium studies. J Magnet Magnet Mater 404:179–189

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Sing KS (1985) Reporting physisorption data for gas/solid systems with special reference to the determination of surface area and porosity (Recommendations 1984). Pure Appl Chem 57(4):603–619

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Sayğılı H, Güzel F (2016) High surface area mesoporous activated carbon from tomato processing solid waste by zinc chloride activation: process optimization, characterization and dyes adsorption. J Clean Prod 113:995–1004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Goncalves M, Castro CS, Boas IK, Soler FC, Pinto EDC, Lavall RL, Carvalho WA (2019) Glycerin waste as sustainable precursor for activated carbon production: adsorption properties and application in supercapacitors. J Environ Chem Eng 7(3):103059–103070

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Dao MU, Le HS, Hoang HY, Tran VA, Doan VD, Le TTN, Sirotkin, (2021) A Natural core-shell structure activated carbon beads derived from Litsea glutinosa seeds for removal of methylene blue: facile preparation, characterization, and adsorption properties. Environ Res 198:110481–110493

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Hadi S, Taheri E, Amin MM, Fatehizadeh A, Lima EC (2021) Fabrication of activated carbon from pomegranate husk by dual consecutive chemical activation for 4-chlorophenol adsorption. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28(11):13919–13930

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Köseoğlu E, Akmil-Başar C (2015) Preparation, structural evaluation and adsorptive properties of activated carbon from agricultural waste biomass. Adv Powder Technol 26(3):811–818

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Masoudian N, Rajabi M, Ghaedi M (2019) Titanium oxide nanoparticles loaded onto activated carbon prepared from bio-waste watermelon rind for the efficient ultrasonic-assisted adsorption of Congo red and phenol red dyes from wastewaters. Polyhedron 173:114105–114114

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Jawad AH, Abdulhameed AS, Wilson LD, Hanafiah MAKM, Nawawi WI, ALOthman ZA, Rizwan Khan M (2021) Fabrication of Schiff’s base chitosan-glutaraldehyde/activated charcoal composite for cationic dye removal: optimization using response surface methodology. J. Polym. Environ. 29(9):2855–2868

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Kutluay S, Temel F (2021) Silica gel based new adsorbent having enhanced VOC dynamic adsorption/desorption performance. Colloids Surf A: Physicochem Eng Asp 609:125848–125862

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Marichamy MK, Kumaraguru A, Jonna N (2021) Particle size distribution modeling and kinetic study for coagulation treatment of tannery industry wastewater at response surface optimized condition. J Clean Prod 297:126657–126673

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Jawad AH, Abdulhameed AS, Hanafiah MAKM, ALOthman ZA, Khan MR, Surip SN (2021) Numerical desirability function for adsorption of methylene blue dye by sulfonated pomegranate peel biochar: modeling, kinetic, isotherm, thermodynamic, and mechanism study. Korean. J. Chem. Eng. 38(7):1499–1509

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Lagergren S (1898) Zur theorie der sogenannten adsorption geloster stoffe. Vet Akad Handl 24:1–39

    Google Scholar 

  41. Ho YS, McKay G (1998) Sorption of dye from aqueous solution by peat. Chem Eng J 70:115–124

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Theamwong N, Intarabumrung W, Sangon S, Aintharabunya S, Ngernyen Y, Hunt AJ, Supanchaiyamat N (2021) Activated carbons from waste Cassia bakeriana seed pods as high-performance adsorbents for toxic anionic dye and ciprofloxacin antibiotic remediation. Bioresour Technol 341:125832–125842

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Langmuir I (1918) The adsorption of gases on plane surfaces of glass, mica and platinum. J Am Chem Soc 40:1361–1403

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Freundlich HMF (1906) Over the adsorption in solution. J Phys Chem 57:385–471

    Google Scholar 

  45. Temkin MI (1940) Kinetics of ammonia synthesis on promoted iron catalysts. Acta physiochim URSS 12:327–356

    Google Scholar 

  46. Saleem A, Hussain A, Chaudhary A, Ahmad QA, Iqtedar M, Javid A, Muhammad Akram A (2022) Acid hydrolysis optimization of pomegranate peels waste using response surface methodology for ethanol production. Biomass Conv Bioref 12:1513–1524

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Oni BA, Olawole OC, Ayeni AO, Sanni SE (2020) African star apples whole seed activated carbon powder as a bio-adsorbent of crystal violet dye removal from aqueous solution. Water Conser Sci Eng 5(1):97–114

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Dil EA, Ghaedi M, Ghaedi A, Asfaram A, Jamshidi M, Purkait MK (2016) Application of artificial neural network and response surface methodology for the removal of crystal violet by zinc oxide nanorods loaded on activate carbon: kinetics and equilibrium study. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 59:210–220

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Yusuff AS, Ajayi OA, Popoola LT (2021) Application of Taguchi design approach to parametric optimization of adsorption of crystal violet dye by activated carbon from poultry litter. Sci African 13:00850–0063

    Google Scholar 

  50. Foroutan R, Peighambardoust SJ, Peighambardoust SH, Pateiro M, Lorenzo JM (2021) Adsorption of crystal violet dye using activated carbon of lemon wood and activated carbon/Fe3O4 magnetic nanocomposite from aqueous solutions: a kinetic, equilibrium and thermodynamic study. Mol 26(8):2241–2260

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Tuli FJ, Hossain A, Kibria AF, Tareq ARM, Mamun SM, Ullah AA (2020) Removal of methylene blue from water by low-cost activated carbon prepared from tea waste: a study of adsorption isotherm and kinetics. Environ Nanotechnol Monit Manage 14:100354–100362

    Google Scholar 

  52. da Silva AI, Paranha G, Maia LS, Mulinari DR (2021) Development of activated carbon from pineapple crown wastes and its potential use for removal of methylene blue. J Nat Fibers 1–16.

  53. Misran E, Bani O, Situmeang EM, Purba AS (2022) Banana stem based activated carbon as a low-cost adsorbent for methylene blue removal: isotherm, kinetics, and reusability. Alex Eng J 61(3):1946–1955

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Abbas M, Trari M (2020) Removal of methylene blue in aqueous solution by economic adsorbent derived from apricot stone activated carbon. Fibers Polym 21(4):810–820

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Mahapatra U, Chatterjee A, Das C, Manna AK (2021) Adsorptive removal of hexavalent chromium and methylene blue from simulated solution by activated carbon synthesized from natural rubber industry biosludge. Environ Technol Innova 22:101427–101408

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Wathukarage A, Herath I, Iqbal MCM, Vithanage M (2019) Mechanistic understanding of crystal violet dye sorption by woody biochar: implications for wastewater treatment. Environ Geochem Health 41(4):1647–1661

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU) for funding and supporting this work through Research Partnership Program no. RP-21–09-73. The author (Norah Salem Alsaiari) would like to thank for the support given by Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting Project Number PNURSP2022R19, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia

    Nurul Afiqah Mohd Hanafi & Ali H. Jawad

  2. Department of Medical Instrumentation Engineering, Al-Mansour University College, Baghdad, Iraq

    Ahmed Saud Abdulhameed

  3. College of Engineering, University of Warith Al-Anbiyaa, Karbala, Iraq

    Ahmed Saud Abdulhameed

  4. Chemistry Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia

    Zeid A. ALOthman

  5. Department of Chemistry, Science College, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), P.O. Box 90950, Riyadh, 11623, Saudi Arabia

    Tarek A. Yousef & O. K. Al Duaij

  6. Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, P. O. Box 84428, 11671, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

    Norah Salem Alsaiari

Authors
  1. Nurul Afiqah Mohd Hanafi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ahmed Saud Abdulhameed
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ali H. Jawad
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Zeid A. ALOthman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Tarek A. Yousef
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. O. K. Al Duaij
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Norah Salem Alsaiari
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Nurul Afiqah Mohd Hanafi: formal analysis, validation, data curation. Ahmed Saud Abdulhameed: formal analysis, validation, data curation, and writing original draft. Ali H. Jawad: conceptualization, methodology, software, supervision, project administration, writing, reviewing, and editing. Zeid A. ALOthman: formal analysis and validation. Tarek A. Yousef: validation and funding acquisition. O.K. Alduaijd: formal analysis and funding acquisition. Norah Salem Alsaiarie: funding acquisition and validation.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ali H. Jawad.

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 278 KB)

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hanafi, N.A.M., Abdulhameed, A.S., Jawad, A.H. et al. Optimized removal process and tailored adsorption mechanism of crystal violet and methylene blue dyes by activated carbon derived from mixed orange peel and watermelon rind using microwave-induced ZnCl2 activation. Biomass Conv. Bioref. (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-022-03646-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-022-03646-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation