Abstract
This paper proposes a two-stage geophysical approach to map the vertical cracking and the structural integrity of flood embankments made up of clay geomaterials susceptible to fissuring. The first stage is based on a ‘coarse-resolution’ investigation using conventional electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) equipment to identify the fissured zones in the embankment. This step is complemented by an additional geophysical technique, electromagnetic, to verify the ERT measurements. The second stage is based on a ‘high-resolution’ investigation using a miniature ERT system previously developed at the laboratory scale for detailed mapping of the fissure patterns. The ‘coarse-resolution’ stage is the major focus of this paper and was validated against two case studies in England and Scotland. Longitudinal ERT survey provided a tomographic picture of the upper desiccated zones of the embankments and fissured areas in 2-D, validating the range of resistivity results obtained previously on a fissured clay model in the laboratory. A transversal embankment resistivity tomography was also completed to show the positions of fissured zones in detail in the field. The electromagnetic technique as a fast screening tool allowed cross checking the ERT results and was also efficient in detecting high and low conductivity zones, indicating areas of potential weakness during flash floods and heavy rain. The southern embankment in England showed more fluctuations in the conductivity and resistivity than the north embankment in Scotland, likely to be due to the differences in climate, vegetation and location characteristics between the two sites. Conclusions were also drawn on the potential weaknesses for both embankments and the effect of vegetation on conductivity measurements.
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Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their sincere thanks to EPSRC, AXA and the KTA from Strathclyde University for their support towards the funding for this research. Special thanks to the Scottish Executive, the Institution of Civil Engineers, the East Ayrshire Council (Galston), the Environment Agency (Hull) for their continuous support and help and Mr. Ron Baron for his technical advice on pictures quality.
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12665_2012_2026_MOESM1_ESM.jpg
Supplementary Fig. 1 Typical Wenner - Schlumberger resistivity arrays for 4 and 48 electrodes configuration (JPEG 117 kb)
Supplementary Fig. 4 Calibration of the electromagnetic CMD on known locations from maps (TIF 61 kb)
12665_2012_2026_MOESM6_ESM.tif
Supplementary Fig. 6 Miniature “High rsolution” ERT with vertical cracking pattern. 48 electrodes with half spacing grid (TIF 1,466 kb)
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Sentenac, P., Jones, G., Zielinski, M. et al. An approach for the geophysical assessment of fissuring of estuary and river flood embankments: validation against two case studies in England and Scotland. Environ Earth Sci 69, 1939–1949 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-012-2026-z
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-012-2026-z