Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Interaction in distance education and online learning: using evidence and theory to improve practice

  • Published:
Journal of Computing in Higher Education Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In a recent meta-analysis of distance and online learning, Bernard et al. (2009) quantitatively verified the importance of three types of interaction: among students, between the instructor and students, and between students and course content. In this paper we explore these findings further, discuss methodological issues in research and suggest how these results may foster instructional improvement. We highlight several evidence-based approaches that may be useful in the next generation of distance and online learning. These include principles and applications stemming from the theories of self-regulation and multimedia learning, research-based motivational principles and collaborative learning principles. We also discuss the pedagogical challenges inherent in distance and online learning that need to be considered in instructional design and software development.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abrami, P. C. (2010). On the nature of support in computer supported collaborative learning using gstudy. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(5), 835–839. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2009.04.007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abrami, P. C., Chambers, B., Poulsen, C., De Simone, C., d’Apollonia, S., & Howden, J. (1995). Classroom connections: Understanding and using cooperative learning. Toronto, ON: Harcourt Brace.

    Google Scholar 

  • Abrami, P. C., Wade, A., Pillay, V., Aslan, O., Bures, E., & Bentley, C. (2008). Encouraging self-regulated learning through electronic portfolios. Canadian Journal on Learning and Technology, 34(3), 93–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, M., Bourhis, J., Mabry, E., Burrell, N., & Mattrey, E. (2002). Comparing student satisfaction with distance education to traditional classrooms in higher education: A meta-analysis. American Journal of Distance Education, 16(2), 83–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, T. (2003). Getting the mix right again: An updated and theoretical rationale for interaction. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 4(2), 9–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bates, A. (1990). Interactivity as a criterion for media selection in distance education. Paper presented at the annual conference of the Asian association of open universities, Jakarta, Indonesia. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED329245)

  • Beldarrain, Y. (2006). Distance education trends: Integrating new technologies to foster student interaction and collaboration. Distance Education, 27(2), 139–153. doi:10.1080/01587910600789498.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beldarrain, Y. (2008). Integrating interaction in distance learning: A comparative analysis of five design frameworks. In C. Bonk et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of world conference on e-learning in corporate, government, healthcare and higher education 2008 (pp. 1471–1477). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. Retrieved from http://www.editlib.org/p/29841.

  • Bernard, R. M., Abrami, P. C., Borokhovski, E., Wade, A., Tamim, R., Surkes, M. A., et al. (2009). A meta-analysis of three interaction treatments in distance education. Review of Educational Research, 79(3), 1243–1289. doi:10.3102/0034654309333844v1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernard, R. M., Abrami, P. C., Lou, Y., & Borokhovski, E. (2004a). A methodological morass? How we can improve the quality of quantitative research in distance education. Distance Education, 25(2), 175–198. doi:10.1080/0158791042000262094.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernard, R. M., Abrami, P. C., Lou, Y., Borokhovski, E., Wade, A., Wozney, L., et al. (2004b). How does distance education compare with classroom instruction? A meta-analysis of the empirical literature. Review of Educational Research, 3(74), 379–439. doi:10.3102/00346543074003379.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brookfield, S. (1995). Developing critical thinkers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burns, T. C., & Ungerleider, C. S. (2003). Information and communication technologies in elementary and secondary education: State of the art review. International Journal of Educational Policy, Research, & Practice, 3(4), 27–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cavanaugh, C., Gillan, K. J., Kromey, J., Hess, M., & Blomeyer, R. (2004). The effects of distance education on K-12 student outcomes: A meta-analysis. Naperville, IL: Learning Point Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chickering, A. W., & Gamson, Z. F. (1987). Seven principles for good practice in undergraduate education. AAHE Bulletin, 39(7), 3–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, R. E. (2000). Evaluating distance education: Strategies and cautions. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 1(1), 3–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, E. G. (1994). Designing groupwork: Strategies for the heterogeneous classroom. New York: Teachers College Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook, D. A. (2009). The failure of e-learning research to inform educational practice and what we can do about it. Medical Teacher, 31(2), 158–162. doi:10.1080/01421590802691393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, D. A., Levinson, A. J., Garside, S., Dupras, D., Erwin, P. J., & Montori, V. M. (2008). Internet-based learning in the health professions: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 300(10), 1181–1196. doi:10.1001/jama.300.10.1181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daniel, J., & Marquis, C. (1979). Interaction and independence: Getting the mixture right. Teaching at a Distance, 15, 25–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daniel, J., & Marquis, C. (1988). Interaction and independence: Getting the mix right. In D. Sewart, D. Keegan, & B. Holmberg (Eds.), Distance education: International perspectives (pp. 339–359). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fishman, B., Marx, R. W., Blumfield, P., Krajick, J., & Soloway, E. (2004). Creating a framework for research on systemic technology innovations. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13, 43–76. doi:10.1207/s15327809jls1301_3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fulford, C. P., & Zhang, S. (1993). Perceptions of interaction: The critical predictor in distance education. American Journal of Distance Education, 7(3), 8–21. doi:10.1080/08923649309526830.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garrison, D. R., & Shale, D. (1990). A new framework and perspective. In D. R. Garrison & D. Shale (Eds.), Education at a distance: From issues to practice (pp. 123–133). Malabar, FL: Krieger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hickey, D., & McCaslin, M. (2001). A Comparative, socio-cultural analysis of context and motivation. In S. Volet & S. Järvalä (Eds.), Motivation in learning contexts: Theoretical advancements and methodological implications (pp. 33–55). Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jahng, N., Krug, D., & Zhang, Z. (2007). Student achievement in online education compared to face-to-face education. European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning. Retrieved from http://www.eurodl.org/materials/contrib/2007/Jahng_Krug_Zhang.htm.

  • Jaspers, F. (1991). Interactivity or instruction? A reaction to Merrill. Educational Technology, 31(3), 21–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2009). An educational psychology success story: Social interdependence theory and cooperative learning. Educational Researcher, 368(5), 365–379. doi:10.3102/0013189X09339057.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Juler, P. (1990). Promoting interaction, maintaining independence: Swallowing the mixture. Open Learning, 5(2), 24–33. doi:10.1080/0268051900050205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall/Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Latane, B., Williams, K., & Harkins, S. (1979). Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(6), 823–832.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laurillard, D. (1997). Rethinking university teaching: A framework for the effective use of educational technology. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lou, Y., Abrami, P. C., & d’Apollonia, S. (2001). Small group and individual learning with technology: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 71(3), 449–521. doi:10.3102/00346543071003449.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lou, Y., Bernard, R. M., & Abrami, P. C. (2006). Media and pedagogy in undergraduate distance education: A theory-based meta-analysis of empirical literature. Educational Technology Research and Development, 5(2), 141–176. doi:10.1007/s11423-006-8252-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Machtmes, K., & Asher, J. W. (2000). A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of telecourses in distance education. American Journal of Distance Education, 14(1), 27–46. doi:10.1080/08923640009527043.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, R. E. (2008). Learning and instruction (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, D. C., Atkinson, J. W., Clark, R. A., & Lowell, E. L. (1953). The achievement motive. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, E., Abrami, P. C., Wade, A., Aslan, O., & Deault, L. (2010). Improving literacy and metacognition with electronic portfolios: Teaching and learning with ePEARL. Computers & Education, 55(1), 84–91. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.12.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, M. G. (1989). Three types of interaction. American Journal of Distance Education, 3(2), 1–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moos, D. C., & Azevedo, R. (2009). Learning with computer-based learning environments: A literature review of computer self-efficacy. Review of Educational Research, 79(2), 576–600. doi:10.3102/0034654308326083.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muirhead, B. (2001a). Enhancing social interaction in computer-mediated distance education. USDLA Journal, 15(4). Retrieved from http://www.usdla.org/html/journal/APR01_Issue/article02.html.

  • Muirhead, B. (2001b). Interactivity research studies. Educational Technology & Society, 4(3). Retrieved from http://ifets.ieee.org/periodical/vol_3_2001/muirhead.html.

  • Nipper, S. (1989). Third generation distance learning and computer conferencing. In R. Mason & A. Kaye (Eds.), Mindweave: Communication, computers and distance education (pp. 63–73). Oxford, England: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paivio, A. (1969). Mental imagery in associative learning and memory. Psychological Review, 76(3), 241–263. doi:10.1037/h0027272.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations: A dual coding approach. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, N. E. (1998). Young children’s self-regulated learning and contexts that support it. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 715–729.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A motivational science perspective on the role of student motivation in learning and teaching contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmid, R. F., Bernard, R. M., Borokhovski, E., Tamim, R., Abrami, P. C., Wade, A., et al. (2009). Technology’s effect on achievement in higher education: A stage I meta-analysis of classroom applications. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 21, 95–109. doi:10.1007/s12528-009-9021-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development and death. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sims, R. (1999). Interactivity on stage: Strategies for learner-designer communication. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 15(3), 257–272. Retrieved May 5, 2005, from http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet15/sims.html.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sitzmann, T., Kraiger, K., Stewart, D., & Wisher, R. (2006). The comparative effectiveness of web-based and classroom instruction: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 59(3), 623–664. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2006.00049.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steiner, I. D. (1972). Group process and productivity. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sutton, L. A. (2001). The principle of vicarious interaction in computer-mediated communications. International Journal of Educational Telecommunications, 7(3), 223–242. Retrieved from http://www.aace.org/dl/files/IJET/IJET73223.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development. (2009). Evaluation of evidence-based practices in online learning: A meta-analysis and review of online learning studies. D.C: Washington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, E. D. (1994). In support of a functional definition of interaction. The American Journal of Distance Education, 8(2), 6–29. doi:10.1080/08923649409526852.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webb, N. M. (1989). Peer interaction and learning in small groups. International Journal of Educational Research, 13, 21–40. doi:10.1016/0883-0355(89)90014-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webb, N. M. (2008). Learning in small groups. In T. L. Good (Ed.), 21st Century education: A reference handbook (pp. 203–211). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, N. M., & Mastergeorge, A. M. (2006). The development of students’ helping behavior and learning in peer-directed small groups. Cognition and Instruction, 21(4), 361–428. doi:10.1207/s1532690xci2104_2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webb, N. M., & Palincsar, A. S. (1996). Group processes in the classroom. In D. Berliner & R. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 841–873). New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, B. (1980). Human motivation. New York: Holt-Rinehart, & Winston.

  • Wozney, L., Venkatesh, V., & Abrami, P. C. (2006). Implementing computer technologies: Teachers’ perceptions and practices. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 14(1), 173–207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13–39). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B. J. (2008). Investigating self-regulation and motivation: Historical background, methodological developments and future prospects. American Educational Research Journal, 45(1), 166–183. doi:10.3102/0002831207312909.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B. J., & Tsikalas, K. E. (2005). Can computer-based learning environments (CBLEs) be used as self-regulatory tools to enhance learning? Educational Psychologist, 40(4), 267–271. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep4004_8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for the Study of Learning and Performance, Concordia University, 1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd. W., Montreal, QC, H3G 1M8, Canada

    Philip C. Abrami, Robert M. Bernard & Eugene Borokhovski

  2. Bishop’s University, Lennoxville, QC, Canada

    Eva M. Bures

  3. Hamdan Bin Mohammed e-University, Dubai, UAE

    Rana M. Tamim

Authors
  1. Philip C. Abrami
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Robert M. Bernard
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Eva M. Bures
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Eugene Borokhovski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Rana M. Tamim
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Philip C. Abrami.

Additional information

The preparation of this article was facilitated by grants to Abrami and Bernard from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, Government of Canada and the Fonds Québécois de la Recherche sur la Société et la Culture, Province of Québéc. An earlier version of this paper was presented at “The Evolution from Distance Education to Distributed Learning” 2010 AECT Research Sympoium, Bloomington, Indiana, July, 2010.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Abrami, P.C., Bernard, R.M., Bures, E.M. et al. Interaction in distance education and online learning: using evidence and theory to improve practice. J Comput High Educ 23, 82–103 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-011-9043-x

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-011-9043-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation