Abstract
Major ions, δ34SSO4 and δ18OSO4 of Zhujiang River in Southeast China were determined to examine the sources of the dissolved loads and the influence of human perturbations and chemical weathering on the water quality and health risk. Ca2+ and HCO3− constitute the majority of major ions, Ca2+ contents range from 7.88 to 85.59 mg/L, with an average value of 45.49 mg/L, while the concentrations of HCO3− vary between 31.02 and 247.71 mg/L. The δ34SSO4 and δ18OSO4 signals vary from − 9.69 to 7.88‰ and 1.55 to 9.32‰, respectively. The analyses including principal component analysis, Piper diagram and the elemental ratios demonstrate that water chemistry is dominated by the carbonate weathering, which is facilitated by sulfuric acid. The mass balance model using δ34SSO4 and δ18OSO4 reveals that the riverine SO42− are mainly from the human activities. And in the Xunjiang River and Xijiang River channel located in the lower reaches, Guangdong province with the relatively developed economy compared to the upper reaches, the anthropogenic inputs contribute more to the riverine SO42−. In comparison with the drinking water guideline, Zhujiang river water is generally suitable for drinking. The sodium hazard assessments for irrigation demonstrate that only one sample with the SAR value of 1.14 and Na% of 30.7% exceeds the desirable limits, indicating long-time use of the water may undermine the structure of soil aggregates and reduce agricultural production, for most sites, the water are suitable for irrigation. The calculated hazard quotient (HQ) including F−, NO3−, NH4+ for adults are all within 1, indicating ignorable risk. While in the upper reaches where the acid rain is common, the children are threatened by the non-carcinogenic hazards. The human activities no doubt affect the water quality and increase the health risk for the local residents, thus long-time monitoring on water quality and limiting pollution emissions from sewage and activities should be taken seriously.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahearn DS, Sheibley RW, Dahlgren RA, Anderson M, Johnson J, Tate KW (2005) Land use and land cover influence on water quality in the last free-flowing river draining the western Sierra Nevada, California. J Hydrol 313:234–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2005.02.038
Balakrishna K, Kumar IA, Srinikethan G, Mugeraya G (2006) Natural and anthropogenic factors controlling the dissolved organic carbon concentrations and fluxes in a large tropical river, India. Environ Monit Assess 122:355–364. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-006-9188-7
Barnes RT, Raymond PA (2009) The contribution of agricultural and urban activities to inorganic carbon fluxes within temperate watersheds. Chem Geol 266:318–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2009.06.018
Chetelat B, Liu CQ, Zhao ZQ, Wang QL, Li SL, Li J, Wang BL (2008) Geochemistry of the dissolved load of the Changjiang Basin rivers: anthropogenic impacts and chemical weathering. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 72:4254–4277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2008.06.013
China EPA (2006) Environmental quality standards for drinking water quality (GB 5749-2006). https://www.nhfpc.gov.cn/wjw/pgw/201212/33644.shtml
CSY (2018) China statistical yearbook. China Statistical Publishing House, Beijing. https://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2018/indexch.htm
Das A, Pawar NJ, Veizer J (2011) Sources of sulfur in Deccan Trap rivers: a reconnaissance isotope study. Appl Geochem 26:301–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2010.12.003
Ding H, Lang Y-C, Liu C-Q, Liu T-Z (2013) Chemical characteristics and δ34SSO42-, of acid rain: anthropogenic sulfate deposition and its impacts on CO2 consumption in the rural karst area of southwest China. Geochem J 47:625–638. https://doi.org/10.2343/geochemj.2.0293
Doctor DH, Kendall C, Sebestyen SD, Shanley JB, Ote N, Boyer EW (2008) Carbon isotope fractionation of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) due to outgassing of carbon dioxide from a headwater stream. Hydrol Process 22:2410–2423. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6833
Gaillardet J, Dupre B, Allegre CJ, Negrel P (1997) Chemical and physical denudation in the Amazon River basin. Chem Geol 142:141–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2541(97)00074-0
Gaillardet J, Dupre B, Louvat P, Allegre CJ (1999) Global silicate weathering and CO2 consumption rates deduced from the chemistry of large rivers. Chem Geol 159:3–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2541(99)00031-5
Galy A, France-Lanord C (1999) Weathering processes in the Ganges-Brahmaputra basin and the riverine alkalinity budget. Chem Geol 159:31–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2541(99)00033-9
Han GL, Liu CQ (2006) Strontium isotope and major ion chemistry of the rainwaters from Guiyang, Guizhou Province, China. Sci Total Environ 364:165–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.06.025
Han GL, Lv P, Tang Y, Song ZL (2018) Spatial and temporal variation of H and O isotopic compositions of the Xijiang River system, Southwest China. Isot Environ Health Sci 54:137–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/10256016.2017.1368507
Han G, Tang Y, Wu Q, Liu M, Wang Z (2019) Assessing contamination sources by using sulfur and oxygen isotopes of sulfate ions in Xijiang River Basin, Southwest China. J Environ Qual 48(5):1507–1516. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2019.03.0150
He X, Li P (2020) Surface water pollution in the middle Chinese loess plateau with special focus on hexavalent chromium (Cr6+): occurrence, sources and health risks. Expo Health. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-020-00344-x
He S, Wu J (2019) Hydrogeochemical characteristics, groundwater quality and health risks from hexavalent chromium and nitrate in groundwater of Huanhe Formation in Wuqi County, northwest China. Expo Health 11(2):125–137. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-018-0289-7
He X, Wu J, He S (2019) Hydrochemical characteristics and quality evaluation of groundwater in terms of health risks in Luohe aquifer in Wuqi County of the Chinese Loess Plateau, northwest China. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 25(1–2):32–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1531693
Hong Y, Zhang H, Zhu Y (1993) Sulfur isotopic characteristics of coal in China and sulfur isotopic fractionation during coal-burning process. Chin J Geochem 12:51–59 (in Chinese)
Jaiswal D, Pandey J (2019) An ecological response index for simultaneous prediction of eutrophication and metal pollution in large rivers. Water Res 161:423–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2019.06.030
Krouse, H, R, and B. Mayer. 2000. Sulphur and oxygen isotopes in sulphate. In: P.G. Cook and A.L. Herczeg, editors, Environmental tracers in subsurface hydrology. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston.
Lee K-S, Ryu J-S, Ahn K-H, Chang H-W, Lee D (2007) Factors controlling carbon isotope ratios of dissolved inorganic carbon in two major tributaries of the Han River, Korea. Hydrol Process 21:500–509. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6254
Li C, Li SL, Yue FJ, Liu J, Zhong J, Yan ZF, Zhang RC, Wang ZJ, Xu S (2019a) Identification of sources and transformations of nitrate in the Xijiang River using nitrate isotopes and Bayesian model. Sci Total Environ 646:801–810. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.345
Li PY, Wu JH, Qian H (2013a) Assessment of groundwater quality for irrigation purposes and identification of hydrogeochemical evolution mechanisms in Pengyang County, China. Environ Earth Sci 69:2211–2225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-012-2049-5
Li PY, Li XY, Meng XY, Li MN, Zhang YT (2016a) Appraising groundwater quality and health risks from contamination in a semiarid region of Northwest China. Expo Health 8:361–379. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-016-0205-y
Li PY, Wu JH, Qian H, Zhang YT, Yang NA, Jing LJ, Yu PY (2016b) Hydrogeochemical characterization of groundwater in and around a wastewater irrigated forest in the Southeastern edge of the Tengger Desert, Northwest China. Expo Health 8:331–348. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-016-0193-y
Li PY, Wu JH, Qian H (2016c) Hydrochemical appraisal of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes and the major influencing factors: a case study in and around Hua County China. Arab J Geosci 9:15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-015-2059-1
Li PY, Feng W, Xue CY, Tian R, Wang ST (2017) Spatiotemporal variability of contaminants in lake water and their risks to human health: a case study of the Shahu Lake Tourist Area, Northwest China. Expo Health 9:213–225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-016-0237-3
Li PY, He S, He XD, Tian R (2018a) Seasonal hydrochemical characterization and groundwater quality delineation based on matter element extension analysis in a paper wastewater irrigation area, northwest China. Expo Health 10:241–258. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-017-0258-6
Li P, He S, Yang N, Xiang G (2018b) Groundwater quality assessment for domestic and agricultural purposes in Yan’an City, northwest China: implications to sustainable groundwater quality management on the Loess Plateau. Environ Earth Sci 77(23):775. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7968-3
Li PY, He X, Li Y, Xiang G (2019b) Occurrence and health implication of fluoride in groundwater of loess aquifer in the Chinese loess plateau: a case study of Tongchuan, Northwest China. Expo Health 11:95–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-018-0278-x
Li PY, Tian R, Liu R (2019c) Solute geochemistry and multivariate analysis of water quality in the Guohua Phosphorite Mine, Guizhou Province, China. Expo Health 11:81–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-018-0277-y
Li PY, Wu JH (2019) Drinking water quality and public health. Expo Health 11:73–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-019-00299-8
Li XD, Wai OWH, Li YS, Coles BJ, Ramsey MH, Thornton I (2000) Heavy metal distribution in sediment profiles of the Pearl River estuary, South China. Appl Geochem 15:567–581. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-2927(99)00072-4
Li XD, Liu CQ, Liu XL, Bao LR (2011) Identification of dissolved sulfate sources and the role of sulfuric acid in carbonate weathering using dual-isotopic data from the Jialing River, Southwest China. J Asian Earth Sci 42:370–380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2011.06.002
Li XQ, Gan YQ, Zhou AG, Liu YD, Wang D (2013b) Hydrological controls on the sources of dissolved sulfate in the Heihe River, a large inland river in the arid northwestern China, inferred from S and O isotopes. Appl Geochem 35:99–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2013.04.001
Liu JK, Han GL, Liu XL, Liu M, Song C, Yang KH, Li XQ, Zhang Q (2019a) Distributive characteristics of riverine nutrients in the Mun River, Northeast Thailand: implications for anthropogenic inputs. Water 11:954. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11050954
Liu JK, Han GL, Liu XL, Liu M, Song C, Zhang Q, Yang KH, Li XQ (2019b) Impacts of anthropogenic changes on the Mun River water: insight from spatio-distributions and relationship of C and N species in Northeast Thailand. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16:659. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16040659
Liu JK, Han GL, Liu XL, Yang KH, Li XQ, Liu M (2019c) Examining the distribution and variation of dissolved carbon species and seasonal carbon exports within the Jiulongjiang River Basin (Southeast China). J Coastal Res 35:784–793. https://doi.org/10.2112/Jcoastres-D-18-00148.1
Lu WW, Wu J, Li Z, Cui NX, Cheng SP (2019) Water quality assessment of an urban river receiving tail water using the single-factor index and principal component analysis. Water Sci Tech-W Sup 19:603–609. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2018.107
Mandal UK, Warrington DN, Bhardwaj AK, Bar-Tal A, Kautsky L, Minz D, Levy GJ (2008) Evaluating impact of irrigation water quality on a calcareous clay soil using principal component analysis. Geoderma 144:189–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2007.11.014
Meng QP, Zhang J, Zhang ZY, Wu TR (2016) Geochemistry of dissolved trace elements and heavy metals in the Dan River Drainage (China): distribution, sources, and water quality assessment. Environ Sci Pollut R 23:8091–8103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6074-x
Ministry of Environmental Protection of China (2014) Technical guidelines for risk assessment of contaminated sites (HJ 25.3–2014). China Environmental Science Press, Beijing (in Chinese)
Moon S, Huh Y, Qin J, van Pho N (2007) Chemical weathering in the Hong (Red) River basin: rates of silicate weathering and their controlling factors. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 71:1411–1430. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2006.12.004
Nightingale M, Mayer B (2012) Identifying sources and processes controlling the sulphur cycle in the Canyon Creek watershed, Alberta, Canada. Isot Environ Healt S 48:89–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/10256016.2011.631704
Pashazadeh A, Javan M (2019) Improvement of lumped models in multiple inflows rivers by principal component analysis and reliability analysis. Acta Geophys 67:1149–1161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11600-019-00290-6
Roy S, Gaillardet J, Allegre CJ (1999) Geochemistry of dissolved and suspended loads of the Seine river, France: anthropogenic impact, carbonate and silicate weathering. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 63:1277–1292. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(99)00099-X
Ryu J-S, Lee K-S, Chang H-W, Shin HS (2008) Chemical weathering of carbonates and silicates in the Han River basin, South Korea. Chem Geol 247:66–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2007.09.011
Santacruz LG, Ramos JA, Moran RJ, Lopez AB, Santacruz EE (2017) Quality indices of groundwater for agricultural use in the Soconusco, Chiapas, Mexico. Earth Sci Res J 21:117–127. https://doi.org/10.15446/esrj.v21n3.63455
Sun HG, Han J, Lu XX, Zhang SR (2008) Modeling the relations between riverine DIC and environmental factors in the lower Xijiang of the Pearl River, China. Quatern Int 186:65–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2007.11.009
Szynkiewicz A, Witcher JC, Modelska M, Borrok DM, Pratt LM (2011) Anthropogenic sulfate loads in the Rio Grande, New Mexico (USA). Chem Geol 283:194–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2011.01.017
Tipper ET, Bickle MJ, Galy A, West AJ, Pomiès C, Chapman HJ (2006) The short term climatic sensitivity of carbonate and silicate weathering fluxes: Insight from seasonal variations in river chemistry. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 70:2737–2754. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2006.03.005
Toran L, Harris RF (1989) Interpretation of sulfur and oxygen isotopes in biological and abiological sulfide oxidation. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 53:2341–2348. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(89)90356-6
Tripathee L, Kang SC, Sharma CM, Rupakheti D, Paudyal R, Huang J, Sillanpaa M (2016) Preliminary health risk assessment of potentially toxic metals in surface water of the Himalayan Rivers, Nepal. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 97:855–862. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-016-1945-x
USEPA (1989) Risk assessment guidance for superfund, volume I: human health evaluation manual (Part A). Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, Washington DC.
USEPA (2017) Regional screening levels (RSLs)—Generic tables. https://www.epa.gov/risk/regional-screening-levels-rsls-generictables-november-2017, Accessed 26 Feb 2018
Vaneverdingen RO, Krouse HR (1985) Isotope composition of sulfates generated by bacterial and abiological oxidation. Nature 315:395–396. https://doi.org/10.1038/315395a0
Vitoria L, Otero N, Soler A, Canals A (2004) Fertilizer characterization: Isotopic data (N, S, O, C, and Sr). Environ Sci Technol 38:3254–3262. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0348187
Wang HF, Wu QM, Hu WY, Huang B, Dong LR, Liu G (2018) Using multi-medium factors analysis to assess heavy metal health risks along the Yangtze River in Nanjing, Southeast China. Environ Pollut 243:1047–1056. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.09.036
Wang J, Liu G, Liu H, Lam PKS (2017) Multivariate statistical evaluation of dissolved trace elements and a water quality assessment in the middle reaches of Huaihe River, Anhui, China. Sci Total Environ 583:421–431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.088
White AE, Blum AF (1999) Effects of climate on chemical weathering in watersheds. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 59:1729–1747
World Health Organization (WHO) (2017) WHO. Guidelines for drinking-water quality, 3rd edn. Word Health Organization, Geneva
Wu JH, Sun ZC (2016) Evaluation of shallow groundwater contamination and associated human health risk in an alluvial plain impacted by agricultural and industrial activities, Mid-west China. Expo Health 8:311–329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-015-0170-x
Wu J, Li P, Qian H, Duan Z, Zhang X (2014) Using correlation and multivariate statistical analysis to identify hydrogeochemical processes affecting the major ion chemistry of waters: case study in Laoheba phosphorite mine in Sichuan China. Arab J Geosci 7(10):3973–3982. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-013-1057-4
Wu JH, Wang L, Wang ST, Tian R, Xue CY, Feng W, Li YH (2017) Spatiotemporal variation of groundwater quality in an arid area experiencing long-term paper wastewater irrigation, northwest China. Environ Earth Sci 76:460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-017-6787-2
Wu J, Li P, Wang D, Ren X, Wei M (2019a) Statistical and multivariate statistical techniques to trace the sources and affecting factors of groundwater pollution in a rapidly growing city on the Chinese Loess Plateau. Human Ecol Risk Assess. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2019.1594156
Wu J, Zhou H, He S, Zhang Y (2019b) Comprehensive understanding of groundwater quality for domestic and agricultural purposes in terms of health risks in a coal mine area of the Ordos basin, north of the Chinese Loess Plateau. Environ Earth Sci 78(15):446. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-019-8471-1
Wu QX, Han GL, Tao FX, Tang Y (2012) Chemical composition of rainwater in a karstic agricultural area, Southwest China: the impact of urbanization. Atmos Res 111:71–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2012.03.002
Xu Z, Liu C-Q (2007) Chemical weathering in the upper reaches of Xijiang River draining the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau, Southwest China. Chem Geol 239:83–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2006.12.008
Yu S, He SY, Sun PA, Pu JB, Huang J, Luo HX, Li YS, Li R, Yuan YQ (2016) Impacts of anthropogenic activities on weathering and carbon fluxes: a case study in the Xijiang River basin, southwest China. Environ Earth Sci 75:589. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-015-5226-5
Zaric NM, Deljanin I, Ilijevic K, Stanisavljevic L, Ristic M, Grzetic I (2018) Assessment of spatial and temporal variations in trace element concentrations using honeybees (Apis mellifera) as bioindicators. PeerJ 6:5197. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5197
Zeng J, Han G, Wu Q, Tang Y (2019a) Geochemical characteristics of dissolved heavy metals in Zhujiang River Southwest China: spatial-temporal distribution, source, export flux estimation, and a water quality assessment. PeerJ. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.6578
Zeng J, Yue F-J, Wang Z-J, Wu Q, Qin C-Q, Li S-L (2019b) Quantifying depression trapping effect on rainwater chemical composition during the rainy season in karst agricultural area, southwestern China. Atmos Environ 218:116998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.116998
Zhao MM, Chen YP, Xue LG, Fan TT, Emaneghemi B (2018) Greater health risk in wet season than in dry season in the Yellow River of the Lanzhou region. Sci Total Environ 644:873–883. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.006
Zhang Y, Wu J, Xu B (2018) Human health risk assessment of groundwater nitrogen pollution in Jinghui canal irrigation area of the loess region, northwest China. Environ Earth Sci 77(7):273. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7456-9
Zhen G, Li Y, Tong Y, Yang L, Zhu Y, Zhang W (2016) Temporal variation and regional transfer of heavy metals in the Pearl (Zhujiang) River, China. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 23:8410–8420. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6077-7
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 41325010; 41661144029). The authors gratefully acknowledge Mr. Fushan Li and Yiliang Hou for field sampling; Dr. Yang Tang for laboratory assistance.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Liu, J., Han, G. Distributions and Source Identification of the Major Ions in Zhujiang River, Southwest China: Examining the Relationships Between Human Perturbations, Chemical Weathering, Water Quality and Health Risk. Expo Health 12, 849–862 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-020-00343-y
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-020-00343-y