Abstract
This cross-sectional study employed a syndemic framework to investigate the relationships between face-to-face and cyberbullying victimization, depressive symptoms, academic performance, and gender (female and male) in a nationally representative sample of adolescents who completed the United States 2015 Youth Risk Behavior System Survey. Path analysis results showed that both face-to-face and cyberbullying victimization are associated with low academic performance. Further, depressive symptoms may facilitate declining academic performance for both female and male students. After using a syndemic framework to analyze the joint risk presented by bullying victimization and depression, structural equation modeling showed two different pathways for students who experienced both face-to-face and cyberbullying: (1) for female students, depression fully mediated the relationship between bullying victimization and low academic performance; (2) for male students, depression partially mediated the relationship between bullying victimization and low academic performance. These study findings highlight the need for innovative interventions to address bullying victimization, depression, and low academic performance. Specifically, school health educators, counselors, social workers, and school administrators should work together to initiate programs that address the synergistic nature of bullying through gender-sensitive multicomponent interventions, such as concurrently implementing comprehensive screening protocols and a bullying reporting system in their school system.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Al-Eissa, M. A., Saleheen, H. N., Almuneef, M., Al-Sulaiman, S., & AlBuhairan, F. S. (2019). Poly-victimization among secondary high school students in Saudi Arabia. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(8), 2078–2085. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1285-z.
Ansong, D., Okumu, M., Bowen, G. L., Walker, A. M., & Eisensmith, S. R. (2017). The role of parent, classmate, and teacher support in student engagement: Evidence from Ghana. International Journal of Educational Development, 54, 51–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2017.03.010.
Berkowitz, R., Moore, H., Astor, R. A., & Benbenishty, R. (2016). A research synthesis of the associations between socioeconomic background, inequality, school climate, and academic achievement. Review of Educational Research, 87, 425–469. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654316669821.
Bowes, L., Joinson, C., Wolke, D., & Lewis, G. (2015). Peer victimisation during adolescence and its impact on depression in early adulthood: Prospective cohort study in the United Kingdom. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.), 350, h2469. https://doi.org/10.1136/BMJ.H2469.
Brener, N. D., Kann, L., Shanklin, S., Kinchen, S., Eaton, D. K., Hawkins, J., & Flint, K. H. (2013). Methodology of the youth risk behavior surveillance system – 2013. MMWR. Recommendations and Reports: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Recommendations and Reports / Centers for Disease Control, 62(RR-1), 1–20.
Brennan, J., Kuhns, L. M., Johnson, A. K., Belzer, M., Wilson, E. C., Garofalo, R., & Adolescent Medicine Trials Network for HIV/AIDS Interventions. (2012). Syndemic theory and HIV-related risk among young transgender women: The role of multiple, co-occurring health problems and social marginalization. American Journal of Public Health, 102, 1751–1757. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300433.
Campbell, M., Spears, B., Slee, P., Butler, D., & Kift, S. (2012). Victims’ perceptions of traditional and cyberbullying, and the psychosocial correlates of their victimisation. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 17, 389–401. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632752.2012.704316.
Davis, J. P., Dumas, T. M., Merrin, G. J., Espelage, D. L., Tan, K., Madden, D., & Hong, J. S. (2018). Examining the pathways between bully victimization, depression, academic achievement, and problematic drinking in adolescence. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 32, 605–616. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000394.
Dierkhising, C. B., Ford, J. D., Branson, C., Grasso, D. J., & Lee, R. (2019). Developmental timing of polyvictimization: Continuity, change, and association with adverse outcomes in adolescence. Child Abuse & Neglect, 87, 40–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.07.022.
Dyer, T. P., Shoptaw, S., Guadamuz, T. E., Plankey, M., Kao, U., Ostrow, D., Chmiel, J. S., Herrick, A., & Stall, R. (2012). Application of syndemic theory to black men who have sex with men in the multicenter AIDS cohort study. Journal of Urban Health, 89, 697–708. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-012-9674-x.
Espelage, D. L., Hong, J. S., Rao, M. A., & Low, S. (2013). Associations between peer victimization and academic performance. Theory Into Practice, 52, 233–240. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2013.829724.
Espelage, D. L., Van Ryzin, M. J., & Holt, M. K. (2018). Trajectories of bully perpetration across early adolescence: Static risk factors, dynamic covariates, and longitudinal outcomes. Psychology of Violence, 8, 141–150. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000095.
Feng, J. Y., Hsieh, Y. P., Hwa, H. L., Huang, C. Y., Wei, H. S., & Shen, A. C. T. (2019). Childhood poly-victimization and children’s health: A nationally representative study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 91, 88–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.02.013.
Fredrick, S. S., & Demaray, M. K. (2018). Peer victimization and suicidal ideation: The role of gender and depression in a school-based sample. Journal of School Psychology, 67, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2018.02.001.
Gladden, R. M., Vivolo-Kantor, A. M., Hamburger, M. E., & Lumpkin, C. D. (2014). Bullying surveillance among youths: Uniform definitions for public health and recommended data elements, version 1.0. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and U.S. Department of Education.
Green, J. G., Dunn, E. C., Johnson, R. M., & Molnar, B. E. (2011). A multilevel investigation of the association between school context and adolescent nonphysical bullying. Journal of School Violence, 10, 133–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2010.539165.
Hamm, M. P., Newton, A. S., Chisholm, A., Shulhan, J., Milne, A., Sundar, P., Ennis, H., Scott, S. D., & Hartling, L. (2015). Prevalence and effect of cyberbullying on children and young people. JAMA Pediatrics, 169, 770–777. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.0944.
Hase, C. N., Goldberg, S. B., Smith, D., Stuck, A., & Campaign, J. (2015). Impacts of traditional bullying and cyberbullying on the mental health of middle school and high school students. Psychology in the Schools, 52, 607–617. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21841.
Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2018). Connecting adolescent suicide to the severity of bullying and cyberbullying. Journal of School Violence, 18(3), 333–346. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2018.1492417.
Hoglund, W. L. G. (2007). School functioning in early adolescence: Gender-linked responses to peer victimization. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 683–699. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.4.683.
Hong, J. S., Davis, J. P., Sterzing, P. R., Yoon, J., Choi, S., & Smith, D. C. (2014). A conceptual framework for understanding the association between school bullying victimization and substance misuse. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 84, 696–710. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000036.
Hong, J. S., Voisin, D. R., Kim, J. W., Allen-Meares, P., & Espelage, D. L. (2018). Pathways from peer victimization to sexual risk-taking behavior among African American adolescents in Chicago’s Southside. Psychology of Violence, 9(1), 88–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000164.
Johnson, J. L., Greaves, L., & Repta, R. (2009). Better science with sex and gender: Facilitating the use of a sex and gender-based analysis in health research. International Journal for Equity in Health, 8, 14. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-9276-8-14.
Juvonen, J., Nishina, A., & Graham, S. (2000). Peer harassment, psychological adjustment, and school functioning in early adolescence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 349–359. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.92.2.349.
Kaltiala-Heino, R., Frojd, S., & Marttunen, M. (2009). Involvement in bullying and depression in a 2-year follow-up in middle adolescence. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 19, 45–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-009-0039-2.
Kann, L., McManus, T., Harris, W. A., Shanklin, S. L., Flint, K. H., Hawkins, J., Queen, B., Lowry, R., Olsen, E. O.’. M., Chyen, D., Whittle, L., Thornton, J., Lim, C., Yamakawa, Y., Brener, N., & Zaza, S. (2016). Youth risk behavior surveillance United States, 2015. MMWR. Surveillance Summaries, 65(6), 1–174. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.ss6506a1.
Katzer, C., Fetchenhauer, D., & Belschak, F. (2009). Cyberbullying: Who are the victims? A comparison of victimization in internet chatrooms and victimization in school. Journal of Media Psychology, 21, 25–36. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105.21.1.25.
Kim, Y. K., Okumu, M., Small, E., Nikolova, S. P., & Mengo, C. (2018). The association between school bullying victimization and substance use among adolescents in Malawi: The mediating effect of loneliness. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijamh-2017-0229.
Kowalski, R. M., & Limber, S. P. (2013). Psychological, physical, and academic correlates of cyberbullying and traditional bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53, S13–S20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.09.018.
Kowalski, R. M., Giumetti, G. W., Schroeder, A. N., & Lattanner, M. R. (2014). Bullying in the digital age: A critical review and meta-analysis of cyberbullying research among youth. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 1073–1137. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035618.
Kuncel, N. R., Credé, M., & Thomas, L. L. (2005). The validity of self-reported grade point averages, class ranks, and test scores: A meta-analysis and review of the literature. Review of Educational Research, 75, 63–82. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543075001063.
Lam, S., Law, W., Chan, C.-K., Wong, B. P. H., & Zhang, X. (2015). A latent class growth analysis of school bullying and its social context: The self-determination theory perspective. School Psychology Quarterly, 30, 75–90. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000067.
Logie, C. H., Lys, C., Okumu, M., & Leone, C. (2018). Pathways between depression, substance use and multiple sex partners among northern and indigenous young women in the Northwest Territories, Canada: Results from a cross-sectional survey. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 94(8), 604–606.
Logie, C. H., Okumu, M., Mwima, S., Hakiza, R., Irungi, K. P., Kyambadde, P., Kironde, E., & Narasimhan, M. (2019). Social ecological factors associated with experiencing violence among urban refugee and displaced adolescent girls and young women in informal settlements in Kampala, Uganda: A cross-sectional study. Conflict and Health, 13(1), 60.
Merrin, G. J., Espelage, D. L., & Hong, J. S. (2018). Applying the social-ecological framework to understand the associations of bullying perpetration among high school students: A multilevel analysis. Psychology of Violence, 8, 43–56. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000084.
Mishna, F., Cook, C., Gadalla, T., Daciuk, J., & Solomon, S. (2010). Cyber bullying behaviors among middle and high school students. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 80(3), 362–374. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2010.01040.x.
Modecki, K. L., Minchin, J., Harbaugh, A. G., Guerra, N. G., & Runions, K. C. (2014). Bullying prevalence across contexts: A meta-analysis measuring cyber and traditional bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 55, 602–611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.06.007.
Mucherah, W., Finch, H., White, T., & Thomas, K. (2018). The relationship of school climate, teacher defending and friends on students’ perceptions of bullying in high school. Journal of Adolescence, 62, 128–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ADOLESCENCE.2017.11.012.
Mundy, L. K., Canterford, L., Tucker, D., Bayer, J., Romaniuk, H., Sawyer, S., & at al. (2017). Academic performance in primary school children with common emotional and behavioral problems. Journal of School Health, 87, 593–601. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12531.
Mustanski, B., Van Wagenen, A., Birkett, M., Eyster, S., & Corliss, H. L. (2014). Identifying sexual orientation health disparities in adolescents: Analysis of pooled data from the youth risk behavior survey, 2005 and 2007. American Journal of Public Health, 104, 211–217. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301748.
Musu-Gillette, L., Zhang, A., Wang, K., Zhang, J., Kemp, J., Diliberti, M., et al. (2018). Indicators of school crime and safety: 2017 (NCES 2018–036/NCJ 251413). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, and Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Justice Programs.
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2015). Mplus user’s guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles: Muthén & Muthén.
Nakamoto, J., & Schwartz, D. (2010). Is peer victimization associated with academic achievement? A meta-analytic review. Social Development, 19, 221–242. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2009.00539.x.
Okumu, M., Kato, H., & Chalise, N. (2016). A system dynamics approach to process evaluation of pen-based digital media-making projects. In T. Hammond, S. Valentine, & A. Adler (Eds.), Revolutionizing education with digital ink (pp. 209–221). New York, NY: Springer.
Okumu, M., Mengo, C., Ombayo, B., & Small, E. (2017). Bullying and HIV risk among high school teenagers: The mediating role of teen dating violence. Journal of School Health, 87, 743–750. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12547.
Okumu, M., Ombayo, B. K., Small, E., & Ansong, D. (2019). Psychosocial Syndemics and sexual risk practices among US adolescents: Findings from the 2017 US youth behavioral survey. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 26(3), 297–305.
Popp, A. M., Peguero, A. A., Day, K. R., & Kahle, L. L. (2014). Gender, bullying victimization, and education. Violence and Victims, 29, 843–856. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-13-00047.
Przybylski, A. K., & Bowes, L. (2017). Cyberbullying and adolescent well-being in England: A population-based cross-sectional study. The Lancet: Child & Adolescent Health, 1, 19–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(17)30011-1.
Raskauskas, J. (2010). Multiple peer victimization among elementary school students: Relations with social-emotional problems. Social Psychology of Education, 13(4), 523–539. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-010-9124-0.
Salmivalli, C. (2010). Bullying and the peer group: A review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15, 112–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AVB.2009.08.007.
Salmon, S., Turner, S., Taillieu, T., Fortier, J., & Afifi, T. O. (2018). Bullying victimization experiences among middle and high school adolescents: Traditional bullying, discriminatory harassment, and cybervictimization. Journal of Adolescence, 63, 29–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.12.005.
Schneider, S. K., O’Donnell, L., Stueve, A., & Coulter, R. W. S. (2012). Cyberbullying, school bullying, and psychological distress: A regional census of high school students. American Journal of Public Health, 102, 171–177. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300308.
Schwartz, D., Gorman, A. H., Nakamoto, J., & Toblin, R. L. (2005). Victimization in the peer group and children's academic functioning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(3), 425–435. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.97.3.425.
Singer, M., & Clair, S. (2003). Syndemics and public health: Reconceptualizing disease in bio-social context. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 17, 423–441. https://doi.org/10.1525/maq.2003.17.4.423.
Singer, M. C., Erickson, P. I., Badiane, L., Diaz, R., Ortiz, D., Abraham, T., & Nicolaysen, A. M. (2006). Syndemics, sex and the city: Understanding sexually transmitted diseases in social and cultural context. Social Science & Medicine, 63, 2010–2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.05.012.
Stark, A. M., Tousignant, O., & Fireman, G. D. (2019). Gender-based effects of frames on bullying outcomes. The Journal of Psychology, 153, 555–574. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2019.1578192.
Starks, T. J., Millar, B. M., Eggleston, J. J., & Parsons, J. T. (2014). Syndemic factors associated with HIV risk for gay and bisexual men: Comparing latent class and latent factor modeling. AIDS and Behavior, 18, 2075–2079. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-014-0841-9.
Sticca, F., & Perren, S. (2013). Is cyberbullying worse than traditional bullying? Examining the differential roles of medium, publicity, and anonymity for the perceived severity of bullying. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 739–750. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9867-3.
Tsai, A. C. (2018). Syndemics: A theory in search of data or data in search of a theory? Social Science & Medicine, 206, 117–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SOCSCIMED.2018.03.040.
Uba, I., Yaacob, S. N., & Juhari, R. (2010). Bullying and its relationship with depression among teenagers. Journal of Psychology, 1, 15–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/09764224.2010.11885441.
Unnever, J. D., & Cornell, D. G. (2004). Middle school victims of bullying: Who reports being bullied? Aggressive Behavior, 30, 373–388. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20030.
Van Zoeren, S., & Weisz, A. N. (2018). Teachers’ perceived likelihood of intervening in bullying situations: Individual characteristics and institutional environments. Journal of School Violence, 17, 258–269. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2017.1315307.
Waasdorp, T. E., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2015). The overlap between cyberbullying and traditional bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 56, 483–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.12.002.
Wang, J., Iannotti, R. J., & Nansel, T. R. (2009). School bullying among adolescents in the United States: Physical, verbal, relational, and cyber. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45, 368–375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.03.021.
Wang, J., Iannotti, R. J., & Luk, J. W. (2011). Peer victimization and academic adjustment among early adolescence: Moderation by gender and mediation by perceived classmate support. Journal of School Health, 81, 386–393. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2011.00606.x.
Wigderson, S., & Lynch, M. (2013). Cyber-and traditional peer victimization: Unique relationships with adolescent well-being. Psychology of Violence, 3(4), 297–309. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033657.
Williams, K. R., & Guerra, N. G. (2007). Prevalence and predictors of internet bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S14–S21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.08.018.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
On behalf of myself and my coauthors, I certify that we have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial or non-financial interests in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.
The data for this paper were drawn from data collected by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The authors received no funding to support this study.
Ethical Approval Statement
The Institutional Review Board at the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) approved the national YRBSS. This article does not contain any studies with animals performed by any of the authors. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Okumu, M., Kim, Y.K., Sanders, J.E. et al. Gender-Specific Pathways between Face-to-Face and Cyber Bullying Victimization, Depressive Symptoms, and Academic Performance among U.S. Adolescents. Child Ind Res 13, 2205–2223 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-020-09742-8
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-020-09742-8