Introduction

Adolescence, often romanticised as a time of discovery and growth, is in reality a tumultuous period of transition. As the brain and body mature and social interactions intensify, young individuals stand at the crossroads of childhood and adulthood (McLeod et al., 2016). This critical developmental phase is marked by increased cognitive abilities, socialisation, and a transition towards independence. However, it's also a period of vulnerability, where poor mental health can significantly impair an adolescent's developmental trajectory and future potential (Powers et al., 1989).

Depression, a prevalent mental disorder during adolescence, manifests as persistent feelings of sadness, slow thinking, reduced verbal and physical activity, and a general sense of lethargy (Tepper et al., 2008). If left unaddressed during this formative period, the consequences can be dire, potentially leading to long-term cognitive and emotional scars (Gotlib & Hammen, 2008). Alarmingly, recent global trends indicate a surge in the incidence of depressive and anxiety symptoms, with adolescents' mental health becoming a focal point of concern (Hankin, 2006). Notably, studies have shown that Asian countries, particularly China, report higher rates of depression among adolescents compared to their Western counterparts. For instance, research indicates that 38% of Hong Kong adolescents exhibit mild to moderate depressive symptoms, a stark contrast to the 25% reported in the U.S. (Stewart et al., 2004).

While various interventions, ranging from pharmacological to psychological treatments, have been employed to address depression, the advent of mindfulness-based interventions, particularly Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT), has shown promising results in alleviating depression, anxiety, and other psychosomatic issues (Tang et al., 2012). Interestingly, while the benefits of mindfulness interventions in reducing student depression levels are evident, there's a concurrent observation: students' dispositional mindfulness is inversely related to their depression levels. This discovery, supported by existing studies such as those by Medvedev et al. (2018), underscores the significance of dispositional mindfulness in the context of adolescent depression. A recent meta-analytic structural equation modelling approach by Furthermore, Prieto-Fidalgo et al. (2022) further supports this, suggesting that individuals with higher inherent mindfulness might be less prone to depressive symptoms. However, the mechanisms underlying the relations between dispositional mindfulness and depression, especially among Chinese adolescents, are not fully understood.

This brings us to the core of our study. Although the negative correlation between dispositional mindfulness and depression has been proven, the underlying mechanisms, especially among Chinese high school students, are yet to be fully understood. Our study aims to fill this gap, providing insights into the intricate relations between dispositional mindfulness and depression, and potentially uncovering the protective mechanism of dispositional mindfulness against depression in this specific demographic.

The relationship between dispositional mindfulness and depression

Mindfulness is traditionally defined as a state of non-judgmental attention to present-moment experiences (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Rooted in ancient traditions, mindfulness has been adapted into structured interventions such as Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) and Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR). These interventions have been widely applied across various domains, consistently showing promising outcomes in alleviating depressive symptoms (Hofmann et al., 2010).

An intriguing aspect of this therapeutic journey is the role of 'dispositional mindfulness'. Dispositional mindfulness (DM) refers to the capacity for enhanced attention to and awareness of moment-to-moment experiences (Brown & Ryan, 2003). The meta-analytic study by Prieto-Fidalgo et al. (2022) highlighted a significant inverse relationship between dispositional mindfulness and depression levels. This suggests a potential pathway: mindfulness interventions, such as MBCT, might enhance an individual's level of dispositional mindfulness. As this inherent trait of mindfulness increases, it could subsequently lead to a reduction in depressive symptoms. Sharma and Kumra (2022) found that higher levels of mindfulness correlated positively with self-efficacy and negatively with anxiety, stress, and depression.

In conclusion, it's evident that dispositional mindfulness acts as a protective trait, potentially protecting individuals from the adverse effects of depression. This highlights the significance of identifying and cultivating this inherent trait as a long-term strategy to combat depression.

The role of rumination in the relationship between dispositional mindfulness and depression

Rumination, a cognitive pattern characterised by repetitive and passive focus on the causes, consequences, and symptoms of distress, was systematically studied by Nolen-Hoeksema (1991). This negative cognitive style emerges when individuals, instead of taking proactive measures, continually dwell on the origins and outcomes of their adverse emotions. Such a ruminative response style not only deepens the immersion in one's emotions but also refrains from actively addressing the issues at hand (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2000). This behaviour has been linked to the exacerbation of depressive symptoms in individuals (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987).

Subsequent research tools, like the rumination scale developed by Nolen-Hoeksema and colleagues, have consistently found a significant positive correlation between rumination and depression, suggesting rumination as a cognitive vulnerability factor for depression (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991, 2000). Studies on adolescents and adults have further identified rumination as a recognised risk factor for severe depressive and anxiety symptoms (Abela et al., 2002).

Mindfulness, defined as non-judgmental attention to present experiences (Kabat-Zinn, 2003), has been proposed as a potential counter to rumination. Mindfulness-based interventions, such as Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT), have shown promising results in enhancing mindfulness levels, reducing depressive symptoms, and curbing rumination (Van Aalderen et al., 2011). For instance, a study by Parmentier et al. (2019) found that mindfulness was related to lower levels of depression both directly and indirectly, with rumination acting as a significant mediator.

Moreover, research has indicated that dispositional mindfulness, an inherent trait-like quality of mindfulness, is inversely related to depression levels. This relationship is further influenced by rumination, suggesting that higher levels of dispositional mindfulness might reduce the tendency to ruminate, thereby potentially lowering depressive symptoms (Weiner et al., 2016).

In conclusion, an increase in dispositional mindfulness is associated with a reduction in depression, potentially mediated by a decrease in rumination. This relations highlights the significance of comprehensively understanding and effectively targeting rumination in therapeutic environments for better outcomes.

The role of executive functioning in the relationship between dispositional mindfulness and depression

Executive functioning (EF) is a set of top-down processes that allow individuals to allocate resources for storing, planning, and controlling relevant information during information processing (Perner & Lang, 1999). It encompasses core sub-functions such as working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility (Oh & Lewis, 2008).

Research suggests that individuals with depression often exhibit deficits in EF. These deficits can lead to difficulties in maintaining positive information and a propensity to become ensnared in negative information. Such cognitive biases can amplify ruminative thinking, further exacerbating depressive symptoms (LeMoult & Gotlib, 2019). A significant positive correlation has been observed between the severity of depression and impairments in EF (Wagner et al., 2014).

Dispositional mindfulness, or an individual's inherent trait-like quality of mindfulness, has been linked to enhanced executive functioning. For instance, Bergomi et al. (2012) found that higher levels of dispositional mindfulness were associated with better performance on tasks requiring cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control. Furthermore, Raphiphatthana et al. (2016) demonstrated that dispositional mindfulness was negatively correlated with depressive symptoms and that this relationship was partially mediated by EF.

Based on the evidence, it seems likely that EF could mediate the link between dispositional mindfulness and depression. This points to the possibility of dispositional mindfulness playing as a protective factor against depression, potentially due to its beneficial effect on EF.

The role of rumination and executive functioning in the relationship between dispositional mindfulness and depression

Executive functioning, a complex cognitive process, is intricately linked to both rumination and depression levels (Wagner et al., 2014). Koster et al. (2011) proposed the impaired disengagement hypothesis, suggesting that difficulty in attentional control from negative thoughts leads to prolonged rumination. This inability to shift attention is strongly linked to EF, which regulates attention during cognitive processing (Logue & Gould, 2014).

Research has consistently shown that impairments in executive function can amplify the propensity to ruminate. For instance, Philippot and Brutoux (2008) found a relationship between depressive rumination and executive functioning impairments, particularly in tasks requiring inhibitory control. This is further supported by studies on adolescents, where significant impairments in EF, especially in sustained attention, were evident among those exhibiting depressive rumination (Wagner et al., 2014).

Mindfulness, with its emphasis on present-moment awareness, has been shown to enhance EF and reduce depressive symptoms (Feldman et al., 2016). Moreover, mindfulness practices have been proved to boost EF in individuals with suicidal tendencies, leading to a decrease in their rumination. (Chesin et al., 2016).

Given these findings, it seems reasonable to suggest that EF and rumination are key factors in relations between dispositional mindfulness and depression, possibly acting as mediators in this association.

Research gap and novelty of the study

The exploration of how dispositional mindfulness, depression, EF, and rumination interact in adolescents is both timely and vital. Adolescence represents a pivotal developmental stage where mental health patterns are established, often carrying into adulthood (McLeod et al., 2016). With the rising incidence of depression among adolescents, particularly in China where students face substantial academic pressure and intense competition (Zhang et al., 2013), understanding protective mechanisms and potential interventions becomes imperative (Stewart et al., 2004). In this regard, mindfulness stands out as a promising non-pharmacological approach. Its effectiveness in improving adolescent mental health is well-documented, especially in terms of reducing depressive symptoms and enhancing cognitive functions (Tang et al., 2012).

This study offers a novel perspective by exploring the role of dispositional mindfulness in Chinese high school students, a group that has been underrepresented in mindfulness studies. Our research aims to fill this gap by providing empirical evidence from a substantial sample of Chinese adolescents. This focus on a non-Western population adds a valuable dimension to the existing literature, which predominantly features Western populations. Furthermore, the study's emphasis on the mediating roles of EF and rumination in this relationship is a unique contribution, offering new insights into the complex dynamics of adolescent mental health (Medvedev et al., 2018; Prieto-Fidalgo et al., 2022).

Objectives and hypotheses

Building upon the research gap identified in Section "Research gap and novelty of the study", which highlights the need for a comprehensive understanding of the roles of EF and rumination in the relations between dispositional mindfulness and depression, this study aims to fill this gap. While previous research has separately examined the mediating roles of rumination (Raphiphatthana et al., 2016) and EF (Teper et al., 2013) in this context, a concurrent examination of both as mediators remains unexplored. This gap signifies the potential for a more nuanced understanding of the interplay among these variables in the context of adolescent mental health.

Therefore, the primary objective of this study is to explore these interrelationships through a cross-sectional research design, focusing on high school students. This approach aims to provide a clearer picture of how dispositional mindfulness, rumination, EF, and depression levels interact in this demographic. To this end, we propose a chained mediation model that will help elucidate the roles of rumination and EF as mediators in the association between dispositional mindfulness and depression levels (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
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A serial multiple mediation model

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In line with these objectives, the following hypotheses are posited:

  • Hypothesis 1: Levels of dispositional mindfulness will negatively predict depression levels among high school students.

  • Hypothesis 2: Dispositional mindfulness will indirectly influence depression levels in high school students via executive functioning.

  • Hypothesis 3: Dispositional mindfulness will indirectly act upon depression levels in high school students through rumination.

  • Hypothesis 4: Both executive functioning and rumination will operate as chained mediators in the relationship between dispositional mindfulness and depression levels.

Research methods

Participants

Our study specifically targeted students actively enrolled in high school, establishing this as our primary inclusion criterion. In line with this criterion, we employed a convenience sampling method, selecting participants from a high school in the southwest region of China. Of the 620 questionnaires distributed, 608 were validated after excluding those with excessive missing values and other invalid responses, leading to a response rate of 98.06%. The average age of the participants was 16.37 years (range = 14–18 years, SD = 0.53), comprising 246 male students (40.46%) and 362 female students (59.54%). The study encompassed 303 Grade 10 students (49.8%) and 305 Grade 11 students (50.2%). Demographically, 46.4% of the participants were from urban families, while 53.6% hailed from non-urban areas; 42.8% were only children, and 57.2% had siblings.

Procedure

The procedure of this study was carefully designed to align with ethical standards and to facilitate the collection of precise data from the participants, all of whom were registered high school students. This research protocol was thoroughly reviewed and approved by the Chongqing Normal University (CNU) Ethics Committee, as evidenced by the reference number CNU-EDU-20221105–001.

Initial distribution of parental consent forms

The process varied slightly for day students and boarding students to accommodate their different situations.

For Day Students:

Parental Information Sheets (PIS) and Consent Forms (CFs) tailored for parents were initially distributed to day students. Students were asked to bring these documents home for their parents to read and, if agreeable, sign if to authorise their child's participation in the study. On the next day, students were expected to bring back the signed forms to the school.

For Boarding Students:

The class teachers electronically forwarded the PIS and CFs to the parents of boarding students. Parents were asked to read and electronically sign the forms of their consent.

Distribution of participant information sheets and consent forms to students

Upon receiving parental consent, Participant Information Sheets and Consent Forms were handed out to the students. They were provided with a detailed explanation of the study's objectives and their involvement in it. Subsequently, the students were asked to sign the consent forms to affirm their voluntary participation.

Collection of completed questionnaires

Each participant completed a series of questionnaires, which included: The Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) by Brown and Ryan (2003), The Teenage Executive Functioning Inventory (TEXI) by Thorell et al. (2020), The Ruminative Responses Scale (RRS) by Nolen-Hoeksema (1991), The Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) by Radloff (1977).

Upon completion, all questionnaires were collected en masse by administrative staff at each school. This process ensured that the research team and class teachers had no direct contact with the participants during the questionnaire completion phase, maintaining the integrity and confidentiality of the responses.

Research instruments

Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS)

The MAAS scale, developed by Brown and Ryan (2003), is a unidimensional measure consisting of 15 items. The scale used in this study defines mindfulness as the presence of attention and awareness to what is occurring in the present moment (Brown & Ryan, 2003). The Chinese version of the MAAS scale, translated by Chen et al. (2012), has undergone validation within the Chinese student population and exhibits strong psychometric properties in its application. It has also been widely used among high school students in China, demonstrating good internal consistency (Black et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2021). articipants rate each item on a 6-point scale, ranging from "1" (almost always) to "6" (almost never). Higher scores indicate higher levels of dispositional mindfulness. In the present study, the total score of the MAAS scale was used to represent the level of dispositional mindfulness in high school students. In this study, the scale exhibited high reliability and validity, as evidenced by a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.85 and a KMO coefficient of 0.88.

Teenage Executive Functioning Inventory Self-report (TEXI)

The Teenage Executive Functioning Inventory (TEXI), developed by Thorell et al. (2020), is a specialized tool for assessing executive functions (EFs) in adolescents. EFs, as defined by Thorell et al. (2020), encompass higher-level cognitive abilities like working memory and inhibitory control. The TEXI scale, comprising 20 items rated on a 5-point scale, is reverse-scored, where higher scores indicate superior executive functioning performance. This scale has been validated in adolescent populations, showing a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.86 (Thorell et al., 2020). To ensure the TEXI's applicability to Chinese students, the scale was translated into Chinese by a doctoral candidate in educational psychology and subsequently proofread by a professor of psychology, ensuring its linguistic and contextual accuracy for the target population. In our study, the TEXI scale's total score was used to gauge the executive functioning levels in high school students. The scale demonstrated robust reliability and validity, with a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.88 and a KMO coefficient of 0.92, and Cronbach's alpha values for its two dimensions are 0.79 and 0.84. Considering the absence of a previously validated or extensively utilized Chinese version of the Teenage Executive Functioning Inventory (TEXI) for Chinese high school students, it becomes imperative to conduct further Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to support and establish the scale's reliability and validity in this new context.

Ruminative Responses Scale (RRS)

The Ruminative Responses Scale (RRS), created by Nolen-Hoeksema in 1991, is a comprehensive tool comprising 22 items that assess three distinct dimensions of rumination: symptom rumination, reflection, and brooding. Participants respond to each item using a 4-point scale, where higher scores signify a greater propensity for ruminative thinking. Nolen-Hoeksema (1991) conceptualizes rumination as a repetitive and passive focus on the causes and consequences of distress, which not only deepens the immersion in emotional states but also hinders proactive problem-solving. To ensure its relevance and applicability to Chinese students, the RRS was translated into Chinese by Yang et al. (2009). This localized version has been validated within the Chinese student population, showcasing robust psychometric properties. Its widespread use among high school students in China further attests to its good internal consistency (Liang & Lee, 2019; Liu et al., 2022; Xia et al., 2022). In the context of this study, the total score of the RRS was employed to quantify the level of rumination among high school students. The scale demonstrated excellent reliability and validity, evidenced by a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.94 and a KMO coefficient of 0.95. The Cronbach's alpha values for its three dimensions ranged from 0.78 to 0.90, indicating strong internal consistency across the different aspects of rumination it measures.

Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D)

The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), developed by Radloff in 1977, is a prominent instrument for screening depression. Radloff designed the CES-D to measure the current level of depressive symptoms, with a focus on affective components and depressive mood, which are fundamental in diagnosing clinical depression. In the Chinese context, the CES-D scale was introduced and revised by Chen et al. (2009). The revised version of the scale has demonstrated a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.88, affirming its reliability and validity within the adolescent population. The scale has also gained widespread use among high school students in China, showing good internal consistency (Blodgett et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2009; Wang et al., 2013; Zhu et al., 2021). The scale encompasses four dimensions: depressed affect, positive affect, somatic symptoms, and interpersonal difficulties. It includes 20 items, with items 4, 8, 12, and 16 being reverse-scored. Higher scores on the CES-D indicate a greater severity of depressive symptoms. Internationally, the CES-D scale is extensively utilized as a depression screening tool, and its application extends to studies involving adolescents, as noted by Chabrol et al. (2002). In this study, the total score of the CES-D scale was employed to assess the level of depression among high school students. The scale exhibited a high degree of reliability and validity, as indicated by a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.91 and a Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) coefficient of 0.94. The Cronbach's alpha values for its four dimensions ranged from 0.73 to 0.87, reflecting strong internal consistency across the different aspects of depressive symptoms it measures.

Confirmatory factor analysis

A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted using AMOS 22.0 version, on the collected data from the Chinese version of TEXI. The dimensions were categorized into working memory (WM) and inhibition control (INHIB), aligning with the classification validated by Thorell et al. (2020) in adolescent populations.

As recommended by many researchers (Bollen & Long, 1995; Breckler, 1990), it is essential to utilize multiple criteria to evaluate the different aspects of goodness-of-it model fit indices. The overall fit of an unconstrained model across three distinct groups was determined using several ways: Chi-square/degree of freedom (χ2/df) goodness-of-fit statistics, the Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI), the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), the Incremental Fit Index (IFI), the Root Mean Squared Residual (RMR), and the Root Mean Squared Error of Approximation (RMSEA) (Sung & Mayer, 2012; Stindt, 2018).

For assessment of CFA, various model fitindices for the measurement model were determined (Stindt, 2018) as follows: particularly applicable when the sample size (N) exceeds 200, χ2/df with a value below 5 is good; GFI, AGFI, CFI and IFI with values above 0.90 indicating a good fit and those above 0.80 being acceptable; the SRMR, where a value below 0.09 is favorable, and RMSEA with a value under 0.08 is good.

The results, as demonstrated in Table 1 and Fig. 2, indicate good model fit with the following values: χ2/df = 3.04, GFI = 0.92, AGFI = 0.90, CFI = 0.90, IFI = 0.90, SRMR = 0.051, and RMSEA = 0.058. The results support the construct validity of the Chinese version of the TEXI, suggesting a satisfactory fit with the theoretical model.

Table 1 Model fit of the measurement model
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Fig. 2
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The CFA model of TEXI

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Data analysis

Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis were conducted using SPSS 22.0 to analyze the data. Additionally, the PROCESS 3.0 macro was utilized to examine the hypothesized mediating effects.

Test for common method bias

To address the potential issue of common method bias, Harman's single-factor test was conducted since all variables were self-reported by the students. Exploratory factor analysis was performed on all items using SPSS 22.0. The analysis revealed 16 factors with eigenvalues greater than 1. The first factor accounted for 25.47% of the variance, which is less than the threshold of 40%. This indicates that there was no significant presence of common method bias in the data for this study.

Results

Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis

According to Table 2, it can be observed that there are significant correlations between dispositional mindfulness and executive functioning (r = 0.57, P < 0.01), indicating that higher levels of dispositional mindfulness are associated with better executive functioning. Dispositional mindfulness is also significantly negatively correlated with rumination (r = -0.48, P < 0.01) and depressive symptoms (r = -0.55, P < 0.01), indicating that higher levels of dispositional mindfulness are associated with lower levels of rumination and depressive symptoms. Similarly, executive functioning is significantly negatively correlated with rumination (r = -0.39, P < 0.01) and depressive symptoms (r = -0.49, P < 0.01), indicating that better executive functioning is associated with lower levels of rumination and depressive symptoms. Furthermore, there is a significant positive correlation between rumination and depressive symptoms (r = 0.71, P < 0.01), indicating that higher levels of rumination are associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms. These findings provide support for Hypothesis 1.

Table 2 Descriptive statistics results and correlation matrix for each variable (n = 608)
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Regression analysis

In order to examine the mediating effects of EF and rumination in the relationship between dispositional mindfulness and depressive symptoms, a multiple regression analysis was conducted using PROCESS 3.00. Depressive symptoms (Y) were treated as the dependent variable, while dispositional mindfulness (X), EF (M1), and rumination (M2) were treated as the independent variables (Table 3).

Table 3 Regression analyses of dispositional mindfulness, executive functioning, and rumination on depression (n = 608)
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First, the predictive effects of dispositional mindfulness, EF, and rumination on depressive symptoms were examined. Then, the mediating effects of EF and rumination in the relationship between dispositional mindfulness and depressive symptoms were analysed. According to the regression analysis results presented in Table 2, dispositional mindfulness significantly predicted depressive symptoms in a negative direction (β = -0.55, p < 0.001). When dispositional mindfulness, EF, rumination, and depressive symptoms were included in the regression equation together, dispositional mindfulness still significantly predicted depressive symptoms in a negative direction (β = -0.19, p < 0.01). Dispositional mindfulness also significantly predicted EF in a positive direction (β = 0.57, p < 0.01) and negatively predicted rumination (β = -0.37, p < 0.01). EF had significant negative predictive effects on rumination (β = -0.18, p < 0.01) and depressive symptoms (β = -0.18, p < 0.001). Furthermore, rumination positively predicted depressive symptoms significantly (β = 0.55, p < 0.01) (Table 3).

The mediating role of EF and rumination in the relations between dispositional mindfulness and depression

The results of the mediation analysis, as shown in Table 4 and Fig. 3, indicate that EF and rumination partially mediate the relationship between dispositional mindfulness and depressive symptoms (β = -0.29, 95% Bca CI [-0.34, -0.24]), accounting for 52.73% of the total effect. The mediation effect is composed of three indirect effects generated through different pathways.The first indirect effect is through the pathway of dispositional mindfulness → executive functioning → depressive symptoms (β = -0.08, 95% Bca CI [-0.11, -0.05]). The second indirect effect is through the pathway of dispositional mindfulness → rumination → depressive symptoms (β = -0.17, 95% Bca CI [-0.21, -0.12]). The third indirect effect is through the pathway of dispositional mindfulness → executive functioning → rumination → depressive symptoms (β = -0.05, 95% Bca CI [-0.07, -0.02]). The data in Table 4 indicate that the three indirect effects account for 14.55%, 30.91%, and 9.10% of the total effect, respectively. The bootstrap 95% confidence intervals for these indirect effects do not include zero, indicating their statistical significance. Therefore, the results confirm hypotheses 2, 3, and 4.

Table 4 Analysis of mediating effects of dispositional mindfulness and depression (n = 608)
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Fig. 3
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Serial multiple mediating effects involving mindfulness, depression,executive functioning, and rumination

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Discussion

This study presents novel insights into the interplay between dispositional mindfulness, rumination, executive functioning, and depression among high school students, significantly contributing to the field of adolescent mental health. Our findings not only corroborate existing theories but also introduce new perspectives on how these factors interact, particularly in the adolescent demographic.

Interrelationships among dispositional mindfulness, rumination, executive functioning, and depression

Our study provides a comprehensive understanding of the interrelationships between dispositional mindfulness, rumination, executive functioning, and depressive levels among high school students, offering novel insights into adolescent mental health. The significance of exploring these interrelationships in adolescents cannot be overstated, given the unique psychological and neurodevelopmental changes occurring during this critical period.

Firstly, we observed a negative correlation between dispositional mindfulness and depression, consistent with prior research (Hofmann et al., 2010). This finding not only corroborates previous studies but also underscores the potential of mindfulness as a preventive tool in adolescent mental health. It highlights the protective role of mindfulness against negative emotional states, aligning with the meaning construction theory of mindfulness, which posits that mindfulness enhances cognitive flexibility, leading to reduced negative emotions and an increased sense of life's meaning.

Secondly, our results indicate a significant negative relationship between dispositional mindfulness and rumination, in line with previous findings (Weiner et al., 2016). This suggests that mindfulness, by promoting present-focused attention and awareness, can counteract the repetitive and negative thought cycles characteristic of rumination. The theoretical implications of this finding are profound, as it provides empirical support to cognitive theories of depression, suggesting that enhancing cognitive control through mindfulness could be a key strategy in mitigating depressive symptoms in adolescents.

Furthermore, the positive correlation between dispositional mindfulness and executive functioning adds to the growing body of evidence suggesting that mindfulness practices can bolster cognitive capabilities (Feldman et al., 2016). EF, crucial for emotional regulation and adaptive coping, are enhanced through mindfulness, potentially playing a key role in its protective effects against depression.

The observed relationships between executive functioning, rumination, and depression further enrich our understanding. The negative correlation between executive functioning and both rumination and depression supports previous research (Wagner et al., 2014), and might be due to the impaired ability of individuals with reduced executive functioning to shift their attention away from negative stimuli or thoughts, leading to prolonged ruminative cycles.

These insights suggest that mindfulness-based interventions in schools could be tailored to strengthen executive functioning and reduce rumination, potentially offering a proactive approach to managing depressive symptoms in adolescents. Considering the ongoing development of executive functioning during adolescence, our findings underscore the importance of early intervention in mindfulness practices to foster cognitive and emotional resilience in this critical developmental stage.

Executive functioning as a mediator between dispositional mindfulness and depression

Our study contributes to the existing body of research by validating the direct relationship between dispositional mindfulness and depressive levels in high school students. More importantly, it reaffirms the indirect influence of executive functioning in this relationship. Executive functioning, a composite of processes that regulate and control attention, reasoning, and problem-solving (Pennington & Ozonoff, 1996), has been previously identified as a key mediator in the mindfulness-depression nexus. Our findings align with the Monitoring and Acceptance Theory of mindfulness (Lindsay & Creswell, 2017), further confirming that mindfulness practices enhance attentional control, a crucial aspect of executive functioning, thereby potentially reducing depressive symptoms (Raphiphatthana et al., 2016).

Previous studies, such as those by Teper et al. (2013) and Reynolds et al. (2021), have established a connection between higher dispositional mindfulness, improved executive control, and lower depressive symptoms. Our research supports these findings, suggesting that lower levels of dispositional mindfulness might be associated with weaker executive functioning, leading to increased depressive states. This highlights the significant role of executive functioning as a mediator in the relationship between mindfulness and depression.

Our study contributes to the existing literature by validating these established relationships within the context of high school students. It emphasizes the importance of understanding how dispositional mindfulness and executive functioning interact to influence depressive symptoms in adolescents. This understanding is crucial for future research, which should aim to explore these dynamics further, particularly focusing on the long-term effects of these interrelationships.

Rumination as a mediator between dispositional mindfulness and depression

Our research further explores the mediating role of rumination in the relationship between dispositional mindfulness and depression among high school students. Consistent with the Dual Processing Vulnerability Theory (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2000), we found that higher levels of dispositional mindfulness are correlated with lower levels of rumination, which subsequently leads to reduced depressive symptoms. This finding is significant as it underscores the potential impact of mindfulness in mitigating ruminative thought patterns, a known risk factor for depression.

The study supports the notion that mindfulness, by fostering a present-focused attention and awareness, can disrupt the cycle of negative, repetitive thoughts characteristic of rumination. This disruption is crucial, as rumination often exacerbates depressive symptoms by maintaining and intensifying negative emotional states (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987). Our findings suggest that individuals with lower dispositional mindfulness may be more prone to ruminative thinking, which can heighten depressive symptoms (Van Aalderen et al., 2011).

Our study contributes to the existing body of knowledge by validating the relationship between mindfulness, rumination, and depression in adolescents. It reaffirms the importance of understanding how mindfulness influences cognitive processes such as rumination, which in turn impacts emotional health. This emphasises the significance of mindfulness in the realm of adolescent mental health. This perspective is particularly relevant for adolescents who are navigating a critical developmental stage marked by unique psychological challenges. Our findings add a valuable dimension to our comprehension of how mindfulness affects key cognitive processes, thereby influencing the emotional states of high school students.

The chain mediating role of executive functioning and rumination in the relationship between dispositional mindfulness and depression

Our study has unveiled a significant chain mediation model, demonstrating how dispositional mindfulness indirectly influences depression through a sequential interplay of executive functioning and rumination in high school students. This model not only encapsulates our novel findings but also resonates with existing literature, offering a comprehensive view of the cognitive and emotional mechanisms at play.

We found that high school students with higher levels of dispositional mindfulness tend to exhibit stronger executive functioning, such as enhanced attentional control and cognitive inhibition (Bergomi et al., 2012), and experience lower levels of rumination (Van Aalderen et al., 2011). This is in line with prior research indicating that adolescents with heightened mindfulness are more adept in their cognitive processing and less prone to ruminative thought patterns. For instance, mindfulness interventions like Integrative Body-Mind Training (IBMT) have been shown to improve aspects of executive functioning, such as attention and emotional control, which are crucial in mitigating risk behaviours and managing stress in adolescents (Tang et al., 2012).

Moreover, our findings suggest that as depression becomes increasingly prevalent, teenagers with high levels of rumination may find it more challenging to regulate their depressive emotions (Chesin et al., 2016). Conversely, those with more developed executive functions, indicative of a relatively mature prefrontal cortex, are likely to cope better under stress (Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006). The hormonal and developmental changes characteristic of adolescence can exacerbate the challenges faced by teenagers. However, those with enhanced executive functions appear to exhibit lower levels of rumination and depression, navigating these challenges more effectively (Vilgis et al., 2015).

In essence, our study highlights that dispositional mindfulness can indirectly influence depression in adolescents through a chain mediation involving EF and rumination. This groundbreaking discovery not only aligns with existing research but also advances our understanding by providing a holistic view of how mindfulness, cognitive processes, and emotional well-being are interconnected in adolescents. It underscores the potential of mindfulness-based interventions, not just in reducing depressive symptoms but also in enhancing cognitive abilities and emotional regulation in this demographic. This insight is pivotal for developing targeted mindfulness programs in educational settings, aiming to bolster mental health and resilience among high school students.

Limitations and future directions

Cross-sectional design

Due to the cross-sectional design of this study, causation between dispositional mindfulness, depression, rumination, and EF cannot be conclusively determined. This one-time data collection does not track changes over time. Future studies should consider employing a longitudinal design to observe and understand the dynamics of these variables over time.

Methodological constraints

The study's reliance on self-reported data could lead to biases, including social desirability effects. Furthermore, the exclusive use of questionnaires may not fully capture the intricate relationships among the variables. Future research should combine objective measures, such as physiological assessments (e.g., EEG), with a mixed-methods approach.

Sample diversity and generalisability

The sample was limited to one school, potentially affecting the diversity and generalisability of the results. Future studies should include a broader demographic to enhance external validity.

Methodological constraints

The study exclusively used questionnaire methods, which may limit the depth of understanding of the complex interplay between the studied variables. Future research could employ a mixed-methods approach or physiological measures (e.g., EEG) to gain a more nuanced understanding.

Unexplored mediating effects

While focusing on EF and rumination as mediators, other potential mediators in the relations between mindfulness and depression remain unexplored. Future studies should investigate these factors for a more complete understanding.

Conclusion

Dispositional mindfulness can negatively predict depression levels among high school students.

Dispositional mindfulness can indirectly influence high school students' depression levels through either EF or rumination. Additionally, it can act through a chain mediation pathway of executive function and rumination.