Abstract
This study examines the effects of agency education requirements on racial differences in police-related fatalities (PRFs) across 235 large US cities between 2000 and 2016. We estimated Poisson pseudo-maximum likelihood (PPML) regression models with multiple fixed effects using data from the Fatal Encounters database, Bureau of Justice Statistics’ Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics survey, and other publicly available databases. Results show that adopting agency college degree requirements is generally associated with decreases in PRFs over time, with significant reductions observed for PRFs of Black and unarmed citizens. Our study suggests mandating at least an associate’s degree for entry-level officers should equate to lower rates of Black people and unarmed persons killed by police actions and more balance in the racial distribution of PRFs. Police leaders and local governments should consider these findings when crafting policies to protect against fatal police-citizen encounters.
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Notes
The term “citizen” is simply used in reference to persons who are not police officers and not to describe their citizenship or legal status.
In Graham v. Connor (490 U.S. 386 [1989]), the US Supreme Court held that under the Fourth Amendment’s seizure provisions, the legal standard for police force usage is “objectively reasonableness.” That is, given the facts and circumstances an officer encounter at the moment (and not in hindsight), using more force than reasonably necessary to accomplish a lawful objective constitutes excessive force (also see Holmes 2022).
We limited our analysis to comparisons between Black and White homicide victims because the Uniform Crime Report (UCR) arrest data did not report on arrestees' Hispanic origin until 2013. Thus, data on Hispanic arrest rates only became available toward the end of the study period.
Great care was taken to capture city police departments that participated in the LEMAS survey across all data collection waves, including those that may have changed ORI codes over time.
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Johnson, T.L., Johnson, N.N., Sabol, W.J. et al. Law Enforcement Agencies’ College Education Hiring Requirements and Racial Differences in Police-Related Fatalities. J Police Crim Psych 37, 681–698 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-022-09534-6
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-022-09534-6