Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Understanding the ‘Lexia’ in dyslexia: A multidisciplinary team approach to learning disabilities

  • Part II Understanding Dyslexia: IQ-Discrepancy And Other Definitional Issues
  • Published:
Annals of Dyslexia Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The historical roots of the IQ-achievement discrepancy definition of learning disability are discussed as a reference point for explaining why this definition came into being and why it is inadequate for dealing with the variety of learning and developmental disabilities that present in school settings. A proposal is offered and justified for defining learning disabilities on the basis of profiles for multiple developmental domains that affect learning. In this proposal, developmental dyslexia is differentiated from other learning disabilities. Developmental dyslexia is defined as uneven development (dissociation) between word reading and higher-level processes in the functional reading system. Dyslexics may struggle with word reading because of deficits in phonological processes, orthographic-phonological connections, and/or fluency (rate, automaticity, or executive coordination). The need for both national and international classification schemes for defining specific learning and developmental disabilities for the purposes of educational services and research is emphasized.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.) Washington DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aram, D., Ekelman, B., & Nation, J. (1984). Preschoolers with language disorders: 10 years later. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 27, 232–244.

    Google Scholar 

  • Badian, N. (1995). Predicting reading ability over the long term: The changing roles of letter naming, phonological awareness, and orthographic processing. Annals of Dyslexia, 45, 79–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Balmuth, M. (1992). The roots of phonics. A historical introduction. Baltimore: York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V. (1998). Process assessment of the learner (PAL): Guides for reading and writing intervention. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V. (2000). Dyslexia, the invisible, treatable disorder: The story of Einstein’s Ninja turtles. Learning Disability Quarterly, 23, 175–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V., & Abbott, R. (1994). Redefining learning disabilities. Moving beyond aptitude-treatment discrepancies to failure to respond to validated treatment protocols. In G. R. Lyon (ed.), Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities: New views on measurement issues (pp. 163–202). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V., Abbott, R., Billingsley, F., & Nagy, W. (2001). Processes underlying timing and fluency of reading: Efficiency, automaticity, coordination, and morphological awareness. In M. Wolf (ed.), Dyslexia, fluency, and the brain (pp 384–414). Baltimore: York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V., Abbott, R., Thomson, J., & Raskind, W. (2001). Language phenotype for reading and writing disability: A family approach. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5, 59–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V., & Traweek, D. (1991). Effects of two-phase reading intervention on three orthographic-phonological code connections. Learning and Individual Differences, 3, 323–338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, D., & Adams, C. (1990). A prospective study of the relationship between specific language impairment, phonological disorders, and reading retardation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 31, 1027–1050.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boetsch, E., Green, P., & Pennington, B. (1996). Psychosocial correlates of dyslexia across the life span. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 539–562.

    Google Scholar 

  • Booth, J., & Burman, J. (2001). Development and disorders of neuro-cognitive systems for oral language and reading. Learning Disability Quarterly, 24, 205–215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Breznitz, Z. (in press). Asynchrony of visual-orthographic and auditory-phonological word recognition processes: An underlying factor in dyslexia. Journal of Reading and Writing.

  • Bruck, M. (1990). Word-recognition skills of adults with childhood diagnoses of dyslexia. Developmental Psychology, 26, 439–454.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bruck, M. (1993). Component spelling skills of college students with childhood diagnoses of dyslexia. Learning Disability Quarterly, 16, 171–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlisle, J. (2000). Awareness of the structure and meaning of morphologically complex words: Impact on reading. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 12, 169–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Catts, H. (1989). Speech production deficits in developmental dyslexia. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 54, 422–428.

    Google Scholar 

  • Catts, H. (2000, November). Who are the poor readers: Answers from a longitudinal study. Paper presentation at International Dyslexia Association. Washington, DC.

  • Catts, H., Fey, M., Zhang, X., & Tomblin, B. (1999). Language basis of reading and reading disabilities: Evidence from a longitudinal investigation. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 331–361.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chorney, M., Chorney, K., Seese, N., Owen, M., Daniels, J., McGuffin, P., Thompson, L., Detterman, D., Benbow, C., Lubinski, D., Eley, T., & Plomin, R. (1998). A quantitative trait locus associated with cognitive ability in children. Psychological Science, 9, 159–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, M., & Plante, E. (1998). Morphology of the inferior frontal gyrus in developmentally language disordered adults. Brain and Language, 61, 288–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Compton, D. (2000a). Modeling growth of decoding skills in first-grade children. Scientific Studies of Reading, 4, 219–258.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Compton, D. (2000b). Modeling the response of normally achieving and at-risk first grade children to word reading instruction. Annals of Dyslexia, 50, 53–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corina, D., Richards, T., Serafini, S., Richards, A., Steury, K., Abbott, R., Echelard, D., Maravilla, K., & Berninger, V. (2001). fMRI auditory language differences between dyslexic and able reading children. Neuroreport, 12, 1195–1201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Denckla, M., & Rudel, G. (1976). Rapid “automatized” naming (R.A.N.): Dyslexia differentiated from other learning disabilities. Neuropsychologia, 14, 471–479.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, J., Seltz, R., Kolodny, J., Bor, D., Herzog, A., Newell, F., & Emslie, H. (2000). A neural basis for general intelligence. Science, 289, 457–460.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eckert, M., Lombardino, L., & Leonard, C. (2001). Tipping the environmental playground: Who is at risk for reading failure? Child Development, 72, 988–1001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eden, G., van Meter, J., Rumsey, J., Masiog, J., Wood, F., & Zeffiro, T. (1996). Abnormal processing of visual motion in dyslexia revealed by functional brain imaging. Nature, 382, 66–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Felton, R., Naylor, C., & Wood, F. (1990). Neuropsychological profile of adult dyslexics. Brain and Language, 39, 485–497.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frith, U. (1999). Paradoxes in the definition of dyslexia. Dyslexia, 5, 192–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher, R., & Appenzeller, T. (1999). Beyond reductionism. Introduction to special issue on complex systems. Science, 284, 79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaugher, L., Lombardino, L., & Leonard, C. (1997). Brain morphology in children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 40, 1272–1284.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilger, J., Hanebuth, E., Smith, S., & Pennington, B. (1996). Differential risk for developmental reading disorders in the offspring of compensated vesus noncompensated parents. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 8, 407–417.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goulandris, N., Snowling, M., & Walker, I. (2000). Is dyslexia a form of specific language impairment? A comparison of dyslexic and language impaired children as adolescents. Annals of Dyslexia, 50, 103–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hart, T., Berninger, V., & Abbott, R. (1997). Comparison of teaching single or multiple orthographic-phonological connections for word recognition and spelling: Implications for instructional consultation. School Psychology Review, 26, 279–297.

    Google Scholar 

  • Healy, J., Aram, D., Horowitz, S., & Kessler, J. (1982). A study of hyperlexia. Brain and Language, 17, 1–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henry, M. (1990). Words. Integrated decoding and spelling instruction based on word origin and word structure. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henry, M., Ganschow, L., & Miles, T. R. (2000). The issue of definition: Some problems. Perspectives, [The International Dyslexia Association] 26, 38–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hsu, L., Berninger, V., Thomson, J., Wijsman, E., & Raskind, W. (in press). Familial aggregation of dyslexia phenotypes: Paired correlated measures. Neuropsychiatric Genetics.

  • Johnson, E., & Breslau, N. (2002). Increased risk of learning disabilities in low birth weight boys at age 11 years. Biological Psychiatry, 47, 490–500.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kame’enui, E., Simmons, D., & Coyne, M. (2000). Schools as host environments: Toward a school-wide reading improvement model. Annals of Dyslexia, 50, 33–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lefly, E., & Pennington, B. (1991). Spelling errors and reading fluency in compensated adult dyslexics. Annals of Dyslexia, 41, 143–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leonard, C. (2001). Imaging brain structure in children: Differentiating language disability and reading disability. Learning Disability Quarterly, 24, 158–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leonard, C., Eckert, M., Lombardino, L., Oakland, T., Kranzler, J., Mohr, C., King, W., & Freeman, A. (2001a). Anatomical risk factors for phonological dyslexia. Cerebral Cortex, 11, 148–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leonard, C., Eckert, M., Lombardino, L., Given, B., & Eden, G. (2001b). Two anatomical phenotypes for reading impairment. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12(abs).

  • Liberman, A. (1999). The reading researcher and the reading teacher need the right theory of speech. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 95–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liberman, I., Shankweiler, D., Fischer, F., & Carter, B. (1974). Explicit syllable and phoneme segmentation in the young child. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 18, 201–212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lombardino, L., Riccio, C., Hynd, G., & Pinheiro, S. (1997). Linguistic deficits in children with reading disablities. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 6, 71–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovett, M. (1987). A developmental approach to reading disability: Accuracy and speed criteria of normal and deficient reading skill. Child Development 58, 234–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lovett, M., Lacerenza, L., & Borden, S. (2000). Putting struggling readers on the PHAST track: A program to integrate phonological and strategy-based remedial reading instruction and maximize outcomes. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 458–476.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovett, M., Lacerenza, L., Borden, S., Frijters, J., Steinbach, K., & DePalma, M. (2000). Components of effective remediation for developmental reading disability: Combining phonological and strategy-based instruction to improve outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 263–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luria, A. R. (1973). The working brain. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyon, G. R., & Fletcher, J. M. (2001). Early warning system. Education Matters, Summer, pp. 22–29.

  • Lyon, G. R., Fletcher, J. M., Shaywitz, S. E., Shaywitz, B. A., Torgesen, J. K., Wood, F. B., Schulte, A., & Olson, R. (2001). Rethinking learning disabilities. In C. E. Finn, A. J. Rotherham, & C. R. Hokanson (eds.), Rethinking special education for a new century (pp. 259–288). Washington, DC: Thomas B. Fordham Foundation and the Progressive Policy Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyon, G. R., & Krasnegor, N. (Eds.) (1996). Attention, memory, and executive functions. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manis, F., Custodio, R., & Szeszulski, P. (1993). Development of phonological and orthographic skill: A 2- year longitudinal study of dyslexic children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 56, 64–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mattingly, I. (1972). Reading, the linguistic process, and linguistic awareness. In J. F. Kavanagh, & I. Mattingly (eds.), Language by ear and by eye: The relationships between speech and reading (pp. 133–147). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCormick, M. (2000). Dyslexia and developmental verbal apraxia. Dyslexia. An International Journal of Research and Practice, 6, 210–214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mody, M., Studdert-Kennedy, M., & Brady, S. (1997). Speech perception deficits in poor readers: Auditory processing or phonological coding? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 64, 199–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Molfese, D. (in press). Newborn brain responses predict language development skills that emerge eight years later. Brain and Language.

  • Molfese, D. (2000). Predicting dyslexia at 8 years using neonatal brain responses. Brain and Language, 72, 238–245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, R., Stuebing, K., Fletcher, J., Shaywitz, S., Lyon, G. R., Shankweiler, D., Katz, L., Francis, D., & Shaywitz, B. (1998). Subtypes of reading disability: Variability around a phonological core. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 347–373.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nagy, W., Osborn, J., Winsor, P., & O’Flahavan, J. (1994). Structural analysis: Some guidelines for instruction. In F. Lehr & J. Osborn (eds.), Reading, language, and literacy (pp. 45–58). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nicholson, R. (2000). Dyslexia and dysgraphia: Commentary. Dyslexia: An International Journal of Research and Practice, 6, 203–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nicholson, R., & Fawcett, A. (1995). Dyslexia is more than a phonological disability. Dyslexia: An International Journal of Research and Practice, 1, 19–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oakhill, J., & Yull, M. (1996). Higher order factors in comprehension disability: Processes and remediation. In C. Cornaldi, & J. Oakhill (Eds.), Reading comprehension difficulties: Processes and interventions (pp. 69–92). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson, R., Datta, H., Gayan, J., & DeFries, J. (1999). A behavioral genetic analysis of reading disabilities and component processes. In R. M. Klein & P. A. McMullen (eds.), Converging methods for understanding reading and dyslexia (pp. 133–151). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson, R., Datta, H., Gayan, J., Hulslander, J., Ring, J., Wise, B., DeFries, J., Pennington, B., & Wadsworth, S. (1999). Does IQ matter for the reading profile, etiology, and remediation of reading disability? Yes, yes, yes! Paper presented at Society for the Scientific Study of Reading. Montreal.

  • Olson, R., Wise, B., & Forsberg, H. (1994). Genes, environment, and the development of orthographic skills. In V. W. Berninger (ed.), The varieties of orthographic knowledge. I. Theoretical and developmental; issues. Oordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paulesu, E., Demonet, J., Fazio, F., McCrory, E., Chanoine, V., Brunswick, N., Cappa, F., Cossu, G., Habib, M., Frith, C., & Frith, U. (2001). Dyslexia: Cultural diversity and biological unity. Science, 291, 2165–2167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pennington, B., Gilger, J., Pauls, D., Smith, S., Smith, S., & DeFries, J. (1991). Evidence for major gene transmission of developmental dyslexia. Journal of Medical Association, 266, 1527–1534.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perfetti, C. (1985). Reading ability. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Psychological Corporation. (1991). Wechsler intelligence scale for children, third edition. San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raskind, W., Hsu, L., Thomson, J., Berninger, V., & Wijsman, E. (2000). Family aggregation of dyslexic phenotypes. Behavior Genetics, 30, 385–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richards, T., Dager, S., Corina, D., Serafini, S., Heide, A., Steury, K., Strauss, W., Hayes, C., Abbott, R., Kraft, S., Shaw, D., Posse, S., & Berninger, V. (1999). Dyslexic children have abnormal chemical brain activation during reading-related language tasks. American Journal of Neuroradiology, 20, 1393–1398.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards, T., Corina, D., Serafini, S., Steury, K., Dager, S., Marro, K., Abbott, R., Maravilla, K., & Berninger, V. (2000). Effects of phonologically driven treatment for dyslexia on lactate levels as measured by proton MRSI. American Journal of Radiology, 21, 916–922.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, N., Zigler, E., & Gallagher, J. (2000). Two tails of the normal curve. Similarities and differences in the study of mental retardation and giftedness. American Psychologist, 55, 1413–1424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scarborough, H. (1989). Prediction of reading disability from familial and individual differences. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 101–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scarborough, H. (1990). Very early language deficits in dyslexic children. Child Development, 61, 1728–1734.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scarborough, H. (1991). Early syntactic development of dyslexic children. Annals of Dyslexia, 41, 207–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scarborough, H. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence, theory, and practice. In S. Neuman & D. Dickinson (eds.), Handbook for research in early literacy (pp. 97–110). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaywitz, S., Shaywitz, B., Pugh, K., Fullbright, R., Constable, T., Menci, E., Shakweiler, D., Liberman, A., Skudlarski, P., Fletcher, J., Katz, L., Marchione, K., Lacadie, C., Gatenby, C., & Gore, J. (1998). Functional disruption in the organization of the brain for reading in dyslexia. Proceedings of the National Academy, 95, 2636–2641.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, L. (1984). A longitudinal study of a hyperlexic child: Hyperlexia as a language disorder. Neuropsychologia, 22, 577–585.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, L. (1989). Why we do not need intelligence scores in the definition and analysis of learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22, 514–518.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silva, P., Williams, S., & McGee, R. (1987). A longitudinal study of children with developmental language delay at age three: Later intelligence, reading, and behavior problems. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 29, 630–640.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skottun, B., & Parke, L. (1999). The possible relationship between visual deficits and dyslexia: Examination of a critical assumption. Journal of Learning Disabilties, 32, 2–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stage, S., Abbott, R., Jenkins, J., & Berninger, V. (2000). Predicting response to early reading intervention using Verbal IQ, reading-related language abilities, attention ratings, and Verbal IQ—word reading discrepancy. To appear in special issue of the Journal of Learning Disabilities.

  • Stanovich, K. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 360–407.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tallal, P., Merzenich, M., Miller, S., & Jenkins, W. (1998). Language learning impairments: Integrating basic science, technology, and remediation. Experimental Brain Research, 123, 210–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomson, J., Abbott, R., Busse, J., Raskind, W., & Berninger, V. (1999). Self-regulation of cognitive and motoric processes and its relationship to language and academic skills in dyslexia. Submitted.

  • Thompson, G. B., & Johnston, R. (2000). Are nonword and other phonological deficits indicative of a failed reading process? Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 12, 63–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tønnessen, F. (1997). How can we best define ‘dyslexia’? Dyslexia: An International Journal of Research and Practice 3, 78–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Torgesen, J., Rashotte, C., & Alexander, A. (2001). Principles of fluency instruction in reading: Relationships with established empirical outcomes. In M. Wolf (ed.), Dyslexia, fluency and the brain (pp. 333–355). Parkton, MD: York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Torgesen, J., Alexander, A., Wagner, R., Rashotte, C., Voeller, K., & Conway, T. (2001). Intensive remedial instruction for children with severe reading disabilities: Immediate and long-term outcomes from two instructional approaches. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 33–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Torgesen, J., Wagner, R., Rashotte, C., Rose, E., Lindamood, P., Conway, T., & Garvin, C. (1999). Preventing reading failure in young children with phonological processing disabilities: Group and individual responses to instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 579–593.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trauner, D., Wulfeck, B., Tallal, P., & Hesselink, J. (2000). Neurological and MRI profiles of children with developmental language impairment. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 42, 470–475.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vellutino, F. (1979). Dyslexia, theory, and research. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vellutino, F., Scanlon, D., & Lyon, G. R. (2000). Differentiating between difficult-to-remediate and readily remediated poor readers: More evidence against the IQ-achievement discrepancy definition of reading disability. Journal of Learning Disability, 33, 223–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wadsworth, S., Olson, R., Pennington, B., & DeFries, J. (2000). Differential genetic etiology of reading disability as a function of IQ. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 192–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, R., & Torgesen, J. (1987). The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 192–212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf, M., Bally, H., & Morris, R. (1986). Automaticity, retrieval processes, and reading: A longitudinal study in average and impaired reading. Child Development, 57, 988–1000.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf, M., & Bowers, P. (1999). The double-deficit hypothesis for the developmental dyslexias. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 415–438.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolff, P.H., Cohen, C., & Drake, C. (1984). Impaired motor timing control in specific reading retardation. Neuropsychologia, 22, 587–600.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolff, P., & Melngailis, I. (1994). Family patterns of developmental dyslexia. American Journal of Medical Genetics (Neuropsychiatric Genetics), 54, 122–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, F., & Felton, R. (1994). Separate linguistic and attentional factors in the development of reading. Topics in Language Disorders, 14, 42–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, F., & Flowers, D. (1999). Functional neuroanatomy in dyslexic subtypes. In D. D. Duane (ed.), Reading and attention disorders: Neurobiological correlates (pp. 129–159). Baltimore, MD: York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, F., & Grigorenko, E. (in press). Emerging issues in the genetics of dyslexia: A methodological preview. Journal of Learning Disabilities.

  • Yates, C., Berninger, V., & Abbott, R. (1995). Specific writing disabilities in intellectually gifted children. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 18, 131–155.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Washington, 322 Miller, Box 353600, 98195-3600, Seattle, WA

    Virginia W. Berninger

Authors
  1. Virginia W. Berninger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Virginia W. Berninger.

Additional information

Grant P50 33812-06 from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development supported preparation of this article.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Berninger, V.W. Understanding the ‘Lexia’ in dyslexia: A multidisciplinary team approach to learning disabilities. Ann. of Dyslexia 51, 21–48 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-001-0004-3

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-001-0004-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation