Abstract
Extracted lignin from wastewater of Kraft process and lab-made salicylate alumoxane (Sal-A) nanoparticles were used as toughening agents in epoxy matrix. Epoxy/lignin composite, epoxy/Sal-A and epoxy/lignin/Sal-Al nanocomposites with various toughening agent loadings were cured with an aromatic diamine hardener. Lignin as an available cheap material and Sal-A, as multifunctional structures, both containing numerous phenolic hydroxyls on their surfaces, were incorporated into epoxy matrix with the aim of improving thermal and some mechanical properties of the resulting composites. Both particles interacted physically (directly) and chemically (indirectly) with the epoxy chains. Simplex lattice mixture design of experiment was applied for formulation development and optimization. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were used to characterize the extracted lignin, Sal-A nanoparticles and synthesized composites. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was used to interpret thermal curing process. The presence of lignin and Sal-A nanoparticles in the epoxy matrix decreased the exothermic peak temperature and total heat of curing reaction. In the presence of 2.5 wt% lignin and 1.875 wt% Sal-A nanoparticles, tensile strength of epoxy composites was 22.23% and 30.92% higher than that of reference (pure) epoxy resin, respectively. Vickers hardness of epoxy composites in the presence of 2.5 wt% lignin and 2.5 wt% Sal-A nanoparticles was increased by 17.41% and 15.39%, accordingly.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
F. Hussain, M. Hojjati, M. Okamoto and R.E. Gorga, J. Compos. Mater., 40, 1511 (2006).
I. Armentano, M. Dottori, E. Fortunati, S. Mattioli and J. Kenny, Polym. Degrad. Stabil., 95, 2126 (2010).
P. Cosoli, G. Scocchi, S. Pricl and M. Fermeglia, Micropor. Mesopor. Mater., 107, 169 (2008).
H. Ma, Z. Xu, L. Tong, A. Gu and Z. Fang, Polym. Degrad. Stabil., 91, 2951 (2006).
J. K. Pandey, K. R. Reddy, A. P. Kumar and R. Singh, Polym. Degrad. Stabil., 88, 234 (2005).
A. P. Kumar, D. Depan, N. S. Tomer and R. P. Singh, Prog. Polym. Sci., 34, 479 (2009).
N. Sheng, M. C. Boyce, D. M. Parks, G. Rutledge, J. Abes and R. Cohen, Polymer, 45, 487 (2004).
Y. Si, Z. Guo and W. Liu, ACS Appl. Mater. Inter., 8, 16511 (2016).
J. Michels, R. Widmann, C. Czaderski, R. Allahvirdizadeh and M. Motavalli, Compos. Part B-Eng., 77, 484 (2015).
B. Zhang, M. Johlitz, A. Lion, L. Ernst, K. Jansen, D.-K. Vu and L. Weiss, 17th International Conference on Thermal, Mechanical and Multi-Physics Simulation and Experiments in Microelectronics and Microsystems (EuroSimE), IEEE (2016).
C. P. Wang, Polymers for Electronic and Photonic Application, Elsevier Science (2013).
A. M. El Saeed, M. A. El-Fattah and M. Dardir, Prog. Org. Coat., 78, 83 (2015).
F. El-Tantawy, K. Kamada and H. Ohnabe, Mater. Lett., 56, 112 (2002).
R. Khan, M. R. Azhar, A. Anis, M. A. Alam, M. Boumaza and S. M. Al-Zahrani, J. Coat. Technol. Res., 13, 159 (2016).
J. Gu, Q. Zhang, H. Li, Y. Tang, J. Kong and J. Dang, Polym-Plast. Technol., 46, 1129 (2007).
D. Zhang, W. Liu, L. Tang, K. Zhou and H. Luo, Appl. Phys. Lett., 110, 133902 (2017).
H. Luo, D. Zhang, C. Jiang, X. Yuan, C. Chen and K. Zhou, ACS Appl. Mater. Inter., 7, 8061 (2015).
H. Luo, J. Roscow, X. Zhou, S. Chen, X Han, K. Zhou, D. Zhang and C.R. Bowen, J. Mater. Chem. A, 5, 7091 (2017), DOI:10.1039/ c7ta00136c.
J. Gu, S. Xu, Q. Zhuang, Y. Tang and J. Kong, IEEE T. Dielect. El. In., 24, 784 (2017).
X. Yang, L. Tang, Y. Guo, C. Liang, Q. Zhang, K. Kou and J. Gu, Composites A, 101, 237 (2017).
J. Gu, Y. Guo, X, Yang, C. Liang, W. Geng, L. Tang, N. Li and Q. Zhang, Composites A, 95, 267 (2017).
W. Zhao, J. Kong, H. Liu, Q. Zhuang, J. Gu and Z. Guo, Nanoscale, 8, 19984 (2016).
S. Halder, M. Goyat and P. Ghosh, High Perform. Polym., 28, 697 (2015).
A. Ghasemi-Kahrizsangi, J. Neshati, H. Shariatpanahi and E. Akbarinezhad, Prog. Org. Coat., 85, 199 (2015).
J. Guo, H. Song, H. Liu, C. Luo, Y. Ren, T. Ding, M. A. Khan, D. P. Young, X. Liu, X. Zhang, J. Kong and Z. Guo, J. Mater. Chem. C, 5, 5334 (2017).
H. Gu, C. Ma, C. Liang, X. Meng, J. Gu and Z. Guo, J. Mater. Chem. C, 5, 4275 (2017).
Y. Zhou, M. Hosur, S. Jeelani and P. K. Mallick, J. Mater. Sci., 47, 5002 (2012).
H. Luo, C. Ma, X. Zhou, S. Chen and D. Zhang, Macromolecules, 50, 5132 (2017), DOI:10.1021/acs.macromol.7b00792.
A. A. Derakhshan and L. Rajabi, Powder Technol., 226, 117 (2012).
A. R. Barron and S. J. Obrey, Supra-molecular alkylalumoxanes, US Patent, 6,322,890 B1 (2001).
T. S. Halbach and R. Mülhaupt, Polymer, 49, 867 (2008).
A. S. Mistry, Q. P. Pham, C. Schouten, T. Yeh, E. M. Christenson, A. G. Mikos and J. A. Jansen, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A., 92, 451 (2010).
L. Rajabi, M. Marzban and A. A. Derakhshan, Iran. Polym. J., 23, 203 (2014).
D. Glennie and J. McCarthy, Chemistry of lignin, McGraw-Hill, New York (1962).
C. I. Simionescu, V. Rusan, M.M. Macoveanu, G. Cazacu, R. Lipsa, C. Vasile, A. Stoleriu and A. Ioanid, Compos. Sci. Technol., 48, 317 (1993).
R.-C. Sun, Cereal straw as a resource for sustainable biomaterials and biofuels: Chemistry, extractives, lignins, hemicelluloses and cellulose, Elsevier, Beijing (2010).
E. Dorrestijn, L. J. Laarhoven, I. W. Arends and P. Mulder, J. Anal. Appl. Pyrol., 54, 153 (2000).
W. Boerjan, J. Ralph and M. Baucher, Annu. Rev. Plant Biol., 54, 519 (2003).
S. Laurichesse and L. Avérous, Prog. Polym. Sci., 39, 1266 (2014).
C. Aouf, J. Lecomte, P. Villeneuve, E. Dubreucq and H. Fulcrand, Green Chem., 14, 2328 (2012).
J. Behin and N. Sadeghi, International Journal of Recycling of Organic Waste in Agriculture, 5, 289 (2016).
A. Mirmohseni-Namin, S. Nikafshar and F. Mirmohseni, RSC Adv., 5, 53025 (2015).
C. L. Sherman, R. C. Zeigler, N. E. Verghese and M. J. Marks, Polymer, 49, 1164 (2008).
W. Liu, R. Zhou, H. L. S. Goh, S. Huang and X. Lu, ACS Appl. Mater. Inter., 6, 5810 (2014).
D. Feldman and M. Khoury, J. Adhes. Sci. Technol., 2, 107 (1988).
D. Feldman, D. Banu, A. Natansohn and J. Wang, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 42, 1537 (1991).
K. Pandey, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 71, 1969 (1999).
D. Feldman and D. Banu, J. Polym. Sci. A1, 26, 973 (1988).
J. Gu, J. Dang, Y. Wu, C. Xie and Y. Han, Polym-Plast Technol. Eng., 51, 1198 (2012).
B. Wetzel, F. Haupert and M. Q. Zhang, Compos. Sci. Technol., 63, 2055 (2003).
D. S. Achilias, M. M. Karabela, E. A. Varkopoulou and I.D. Sideridou, J. Macromol. Sci. A., 49, 630 (2012).
W. Chow, S. Grishchuk, T. Burkhart and J. Karger-Kocsis, Thermochim. Acta, 543, 172 (2012).
E. Petrie, Epoxy adhesive formulations, McGraw Hill Professional (2005).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Behin, J., Rajabi, L., Etesami, H. et al. Enhancing mechanical properties of epoxy resin using waste lignin and salicylate alumoxane nanoparticles. Korean J. Chem. Eng. 35, 602–612 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11814-017-0301-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11814-017-0301-0