Abstract
Chlorination, the most widely used disinfection process for water treatment, is unfortunately always accompanied with the formation of hazardous disinfection byproducts (DBPs). Various organic matter species, like natural organic matter (NOM) and amino acids, can serve as precursors of DBPs during chlorination but it is not clear what types of organic matter have higher potential risks. Although regulation of DBPs such as trihalomethanes has received much attention, further investigation of the DBPs driving toxicity is required. This study aimed to identify the important precursors of chlorination by measuring DBP formation from NOM and amino acids, and to determine the main DBPs driving toxicity using a theoretical toxicity evaluation of contributions to the cytotoxicity index (CTI) and genotoxicity index (GTI). The results showed that NOM mainly formed carbonaceous DBPs (C-DBPs), such as trichloromethane, while amino acids mainly formed nitrogenous DBPs (N-DBPs), such as dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN). Among the DBPs, DCAN had the largest contribution to the toxicity index and might be the main driver of toxicity. Among the precursors, aspartic acid and asparagine gave the highest DCAN concentration (200 g/L) and the highest CTI and GTI. Therefore, aspartic acid and asparagine are important precursors for toxicity and their concentrations should be reduced as much as possible before chlorination to minimize the formation of DBPs. During chlorination of NOM, tryptophan, and asparagine solutions with different chlorine doses and reaction times, changes in the CTI and GTI were consistent with changes in the DCAN concentration.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Amjad H, Hashmi I, Rehman M S U, Ali Awan M, Ghaffar S, Khan Z (2013). Cancer and non-cancer risk assessment of trihalomethanes in urban drinking water supplies of Pakistan. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 91: 25–31
Bond T, Templeton M R, Graham N (2012). Precursors of nitrogenous disinfection by-products in drinking water-a critical review and analysis. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 235–236: 1–16
Bond T, Templeton M R, Rifai O, Ali H, Graham N J D (2014). Chlorinated and nitrogenous disinfection by-product formation from ozonation and post-chlorination of natural organic matter surrogates. Chemosphere, 111: 218–224
Bougeard C M M, Goslan E H, Jefferson B, Parsons S A (2010). Comparison of the disinfection by-product formation potential of treated waters exposed to chlorine and monochloramine. Water Research, 44(3): 729–740
Chowdhury S, Rodriguez M J, Sadiq R (2011). Disinfection byproducts in Canadian provinces: associated cancer risks and medical expenses. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 187(1–3): 574–584
Chu W, Li D, Gao N, Yin D, Zhang Y, Zhu Y (2015). Comparison of free amino acids and short oligopeptides for the formation of trihalomethanes and haloacetonitriles during chlorination: Effect of peptide bond and pre-oxidation. Chemical Engineering Journal, 281: 623–631
Chuang Y H, Szczuka A, Mitch W A (2019). Comparison of toxicity-weighted disinfection byproduct concentrations in potable reuse waters and conventional drinking waters as a new approach to assessing the quality of advanced treatment train waters. Environmental Science & Technology, 53(7): 3729–3738
Du Y, Lv X T, Wu Q Y, Zhang D Y, Zhou Y T, Peng L, Hu H Y (2017a). Formation and control of disinfection byproducts and toxicity during reclaimed water chlorination: A review. Journal of Environmental Sciences (China), 58: 51–63
Du Y, Wu Q Y, Lu Y, Hu H Y, Yang Y, Liu R, Liu F (2017b). Increase of cytotoxicity during wastewater chlorination: Impact factors and surrogates. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 324(Pt B): 681–690
Du Y, Wu Q Y, Lv X T, Ye B, Zhan X M, Lu Y, Hu H Y (2018a). Electron donating capacity reduction of dissolved organic matter by solar irradiation reduces the cytotoxicity formation potential during wastewater chlorination. Water Research, 145: 94–102
Du Y, Wu Q Y, Lv X T, Wang Q P, Lu Y, Hu H Y (2018b). Exposure to solar light reduces cytotoxicity of sewage effluents to mammalian cells: Roles of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. Water Research, 143: 570–578
Farré M J, Day S, Neale P A, Stalter D, Tang J Y, Escher B I (2013). Bioanalytical and chemical assessment of the disinfection by-product formation potential: Role of organic matter. Water Research, 47(14): 5409–5421
Hansen K M S, Willach S, Mosbæk H, Andersen H R (2012). Particles in swimming pool filters—Does pH determine the DBP formation? Chemosphere, 87(3): 241–247
Hu H Y, Du Y, Wu Q Y, Zhao X, Tang X, Chen Z (2016). Differences in dissolved organic matter between reclaimed water source and drinking water source. Science of the Total Environment, 551–552: 133–142
Huang H, Wu Q Y, Hu H Y, Mitch W A (2012). Dichloroacetonitrile and dichloroacetamide can form independently during chlorination and chloramination of drinking waters, model organic matters, and wastewater effluents. Environmental Science & Technology, 46(19): 10624–10631
Hureiki L, Croué J P, Legube B (1994). Chlorination studies of free and combined amino acids. Water Research, 28(12): 2521–2531
IARC (1995). Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans: Dry cleaning, some chlorinated solvents and other industrial chemicals. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer
IARC (2004). Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans: Some drinking water disinfectants and contaminants, including Arsenic. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer
Jeong C H, Postigo C, Richardson S D, Simmons J E, Kimura S Y, Marinas B J, Barcelo D, Liang P, Wagner E D, Plewa M J (2015). Occurrence and comparative toxicity of haloacetaldehyde disinfection byproducts in drinking water. Environmental Science & Technology, 49(23): 13749–13759
Jeong C H, Wagner E D, Siebert V R, Anduri S, Richardson S D, Daiber E J, McKague A B, Kogevinas M, Villanueva C M, Goslan E H, Luo W, Isabelle L M, Pankow J F, Grazuleviciene R, Cordier S, Edwards S C, Righi E, Nieuwenhuijsen M J, Plewa M J (2012). Occurrence and toxicity of disinfection byproducts in European drinking waters in relation with the HIWATE epidemiology study. Environmental Science & Technology, 46(21): 12120–12128
Jia A, Wu C, Duan Y (2016). Precursors and factors affecting formation of haloacetonitriles and chloropicrin during chlor(am)ination of nitrogenous organic compounds in drinking water. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 308: 411–418
Lee J, Kim E S, Roh B S, Eom S W, Zoh K D (2013). Occurrence of disinfection by-products in tap water distribution systems and their associated health risk. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 185(9): 7675–7691
Lee W, Westerhoff P, Croué J P (2007). Dissolved organic nitrogen as a precursor for chloroform, dichloroacetonitrile, N-nitrosodimethylamine, and trichloronitromethane. Environmental Science & Technology, 41(15): 5485–5490
Li Y N, He K, Wang T, Zhao B, Yue H X Z, Lin Y C (2018). Current situation and research progress of disinfection by-products and their precursors in Japan. Environmental Sciences (Ruse), 37(8): 1820–1830
Li Z, Liu X, Huang Z, Hu S, Wang J, Qian Z, Feng J, Xian Q, Gong T (2019). Occurrence and ecological risk assessment of disinfection byproducts from chlorination of wastewater effluents in East China. Water Research, 157: 247–257
Lin T, Zhou D, Dong J, Jiang F, Chen W (2016). Acute toxicity of dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN), a typical nitrogenous disinfection byproduct (N-DBP), on zebrafish (Danio rerio). Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 133: 97–104
Liu J, Zhang X (2014). Comparative toxicity of new halophenolic DBPs in chlorinated saline wastewater effluents against a marine alga: Halophenolic DBPs are generally more toxic than haloaliphatic ones. Water Research, 65: 64–72
Lu J, Zhang T, Ma J, Chen Z (2009). Evaluation of disinfection byproducts formation during chlorination and chloramination of dissolved natural organic matter fractions isolated from a filtered river water. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 162(1): 140–145
Mao Y, Guo D, Yao W, Wang X, Yang H, Xie Y F, Komarneni S, Yu G, Wang Y (2018). Effects of conventional ozonation and electroperoxone pretreatment of surface water on disinfection by-product formation during subsequent chlorination. Water Research, 130: 322–332
Muellner M G, Wagner E D, McCalla K, Richardson S D, Woo Y T, Plewa M J (2007). Haloacetonitriles vs. regulated haloacetic acids: Are nitrogen-containing DBPs more toxic? Environmental Science & Technology, 41(2): 645–651
Park K Y, Choi S Y, Lee S H, Kweon J H, Song J H (2016). Comparison of formation of disinfection by-products by chlorination and ozonation of wastewater effluents and their toxicity to Daphnia magna. Environmental Pollution, 215(215): 314–321
Plewa M J, Muellner M G, Richardson S D, Fasano F, Buettner K M, Woo Y T, McKague A B, Wagner E D (2007). Occurrence, synthesis, and mammalian cell cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of haloacetamides: An emerging class of nitrogenous drinking water disinfection byproducts. Environmental Science & Technology, 42(3): 955–961
Reckhow D A, Platt T L, MacNeill A L, McClellan J N (2001). Formation and degradation of dichloroacetonitrile in drinking waters. Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology-Aqua, 50(1): 1–13
Richardson S D, Plewa M J, Wagner E D, Schoeny R, Demarini D M (2007). Occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of regulated and emerging disinfection by-products in drinking water: a review and roadmap for research. Mutation Research, 636(1–3): 178–242
Scully F E, Howell G D, Kravitz R, Jewell J T, Hahn V, Speed M (1988). Proteins in natural waters and their relation to the formation of chlorinated organics during water disinfection. Environmental Science & Technology, 22(5): 537–542
Sun X B, Sun L, Lu Y, Jiang Y F (2013). Factors affecting formation of disinfection by-products during chlorination of Cyclops. Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology-Aqua, 62(3): 169–175
Trehy M L, Yost R A, Miles C J (1986). Chlorination byproducts of amino acids in natural waters. Environmental Science & Technology, 20(11): 1117–1122
Van Huy N, Murakami M, Sakai H, Oguma K, Kosaka K, Asami M, Takizawa S (2011). Occurrence and formation potential of N-nitrosodimethylamine in ground water and river water in Tokyo. Water Research, 45(11): 3369–3377
Wagner E D, Plewa M J (2009). Microplate-based comet assay. In: Dhawan A, Anderson D, eds. The Comet Assay in Toxicology. London: Royal Society of Chemistry, 79–97
Wagner E D, Plewa M J (2017). CHO cell cytotoxicity and genotoxicity analyses of disinfection by-products: An updated review. Journal of Environmental Sciences (China), 58: 64–76
Watson K, Shaw G, Leusch F D L, Knight N L (2012). Chlorine disinfection by-products in wastewater effluent: Bioassay-based assessment of toxicological impact. Water Research, 46(18): 6069–6083
Wu Q Y, Zhou Y T, Du Y, Li W X, Zhang X R, Hu H Y (2019). Underestimated risk from ozonation of wastewater containing bromide: Both organic byproducts and bromate contributed to the toxicity increase. Water Research, 162: 43–52 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2019.06.054.
Yang F, Yang Z G, Li H P, Jia F F, Yang Y (2018). Occurrence and factors affecting the formation of trihalomethanes, haloacetonitriles and halonitromethanes in outdoor swimming pools treated with trichloroisocyanuric acid. Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology, 2(4): 218–225
Yang X, Guo W, Lee W (2013). Formation of disinfection byproducts upon chlorine dioxide preoxidation followed by chlorination or chloramination of natural organic matter. Chemosphere, 91(11): 1477–1485
Yang X, Shen Q, Guo W, Peng J, Liang Y (2012). Precursors and nitrogen origins of trichloronitromethane and dichloroacetonitrile during chlorination/chloramination. Chemosphere, 88(1): 25–32
Yoon S, Tanaka H (2014). Formation of N-nitrosamines by chloramination or ozonation of amines listed in Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers (PRTRs). Chemosphere, 95: 88–95
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51678332 and 51738005), the Shenzhen Science, Technology and Innovation Commission (Grant No. JCYJ20170818091859147), the special support program for high-level personnel recruitment in Guangdong Province (Grant No. 2016TQ03Z384), and the Development and Reform Commission of Shenzhen Municipality.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Highlights
• NOM formed more C-DBPs while amino acids formed more N-DBPs during chlorination
• Aspartic acid and asparagine showed the highest toxicity index during chlorination
• Dichloroacetonitrile might be a driving DBP for cytotoxicity and genotoxicity
• Dichloroacetonitrile dominated the toxicity under different chlorination conditions
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wu, QY., Yan, YJ., Lu, Y. et al. Identification of important precursors and theoretical toxicity evaluation of byproducts driving cytotoxicity and genotoxicity in chlorination. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng. 14, 25 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-019-1204-6
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-019-1204-6