Abstract
α-Linolenic acid (18∶3n−3) is a precursor to DHA (22∶6n−3), which is essential for normal growth and development in the infant. This study was undertaken to assess how a raised 18∶3n−3 intake in sows affects the n−3 PUFA content of the suckling piglet. Sows consumed a high- 18∶3n−3 or control diet (n−3 PUFA/n−6 PUFA, 0.5 vs. 0.05, respectively) for 10 d prior to parturition and for 14 d postpartum. Piglets suckled from their mothers until 14 d of age, when they were sacrificed. Sows consuming the high-18∶3n−3 diet had 141% more 18∶3n−3 and 86% more 22∶6n−3 in their milk compared to control sows. There was no difference in the proximate composition of the piglets. The n−3/n−6 PUFA ratio was 82% higher in the milk of sows consuming the high-18∶3n−3 diet compared to controls. Piglets suckling from sows consuming the high-18∶3n−3 die had 423% more 18∶3n−3 in the carcass as well as a 460% higher n−3/n−6 PUFA ratio than controls. The piglets suckling from sows consuming the high-18∶3n−3 diet had 333% more 18∶3n−3 and 54% more 22∶6n−3 in the liver, as well as a 114% higher n−3/n−6 ratio than control piglets. Piglets suckling from sows consuming a high-18∶3n−3 diet also had 24% more 22∶6n−3 and a 33% higher n−3/n−6 ratio in the brain compared to control piglets. A high 18∶3n−3 intake in the sow increases not only the 18∶3n−3 but also the 22∶6n−3 content of sow's milk and the tissues of the suckling piglet.
Similar content being viewed by others
Abbreviations
- arachidonic acid:
-
20∶4n−6
- DHA:
-
22∶6n−3
- docosapentaenoic acid:
-
22∶5n−3
- EPA:
-
20∶5n−3
- linoleic acid:
-
18∶2n−6
- α-linolenic acid:
-
18∶3n−3
References
Connor, W.E., and Neuringer, M. (1988) The Effects of n−3 Fatty Acid Deficiency and Repletion upon the Fatty Acid Composition and Function of the Brain and Retina, Prog. Clin. Biol. Res. 282, 275–294.
Anderson, G.J., Connor, W.E., and Corliss, J.D. (1990) Docosahexaenoic Acid Is the Preferred Dietary n−3 Fatty Acid for the Development of the Brain and Retina, Pediatr. Res. 27, 89–97.
Salem, N.J. (1989) New Protective Roles of Selected Nutrients, in Human Nutrition (Spiller, G., and Scala, J., eds.), Alan R. Liss, New York, pp. 109–228.
Neuringer, M., Connor, W.E., Lin, D.S., Barstad, L., and Luck, S. (1986) Biochemical and Functional Effects of Prenatal and Postnatal Omega-3 Fatty Acid Deficiency on Retina and Brain in Rhesus Monkeys, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83, 4021–4025.
Crawford, M.A., Costeloe, K., Ghebremeskel, K., Paylactos, A., Skirvin, L., and Stacey, F. (1997) Are Deficits of Arachidonic and Docosahexaenoic Acids Responsible for the Neural and Vascular Complications of Preterm Babies? Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 66, 1032S-1041S.
Cunnane, S.C., Francescutti, V., Brenna, J.T., and Crawford, M.A. (2000) Breast-Fed Infants Achieve a Higher Rate of Brain and Whole Body Docosahexaenoate Accumulation Than Formula-Fed Infants Not Consuming Dietary Docosahexaenoate, Lipids 35, 105–111.
Carnielli, V.P., Wattimena, D.J., Luijendijk, I.H., Boerlage, A., Degenhart, H.J., and Sauer, P.J. (1996) The Very Low Birth Weight Premature Infant Is Capable of Synthesizing Arachidonic and Docosahexaenoic Acids from Linoleic and Linolenic Acids, Pediatr. Res. 40, 169–174.
Salem, N., Jr., Wegher, B., Mena, P., and Uauy, R. (1996) Arachidonic and Docosahexaenoic Acids Are Biosynthesized from Their 18-Carbon Precursors in Human Infants, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93, 49–54.
Su, H.M., Bernardo, L., Mirmiran, M., Ma, X.H., Corso, T.N., Nathanielsz, P.W., and Brenna, J.T. (1999) Bioequivalence of Dietary α-Linolenic and Docosahexaenoic Acids as Sources of Docosahexaenoate Accretion in Brain and Associated Organs of Neonatal Baboons, Pediatr Res. 45, 87–93.
Del Prado, M., Villalpando, S., Elizondo, A., Rodriguez, M., Demmelmair, H., and Koletzko, B. (2001) Contribution of Dietary and Newly Formed Arachidonic Acid to Human Milk Lipids in Women Eating a Low-Fat Diet, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 74, 242–247.
Demmelmair, H., Baumheuer, M., Koletzko, B., Dokoupil, K., and Kratl, G. (1998) Metabolism of U13C-Labeled Linoleic Acid in Lactating Women, J. Lipid Res. 39, 1389–1396.
Jensen, R.G., Lammi-Keefe, C.J., Henderson, R.A., Bush, V.J., and Ferris, A.M. (1992) Effect of Dietary Intake of n−6 and n−3 Fatty Acids on the Fatty Acid Composition of Human Milk in North America, J. Pediatr. 120, S87-S92.
Francois, C.A., Connor, S.L., Bolewicz, L.C., and Connor, W.E. (2003) Supplementing Lactating Women with Flaxseed Oil Does Not Increase Docosahexaenoic Acid in Their Milk, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 77, 226–233.
Cunnane, S.C., and Anderson, M.J. (1997) The Majority of Dietary Linoleate in Growing Rats Is β-Oxidized or Stored in Visceral Fat, J. Nutr. 127, 146–152.
Simopoulos, A.P., Leaf, A., and Salem, N., Jr. (2000) Workshop Statement on the Essentiality of and Recommended Dietary Intakes for Omega-6 and Omega-3 Fatty Acids, Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 63, 119–121.
Rooke, J.A., Bland, I.M., and Edwards, S.A. (1998) Effect of Feeding Tuna Oil or Soyabean Oil as Supplements to Sows in Late Pregnancy on Piglet Tissue Composition and Viability, Br. J. Nutr. 80, 273–280.
Arbuckle, L.D., Rioux, F.M., Mackinnon, M.J., Hrboticky, N., and Innis, S.M. (1991) Response of (n−3) and (n−6) Fatty Acids in Piglet Brain, Liver, and Plasma to Increasing, but Low, Fish Oil Supplementation of Formula, J. Nutr. 121, 1536–1547.
Arbuckle, L.D., and Innis, S.M. (1993) Docosahexaenoic Acid Is Transferred Through Maternal Diet to Milk and to Tissues of Natural Milk-Fed Piglets, J. Nutr. 123, 1668–1675.
Arbuckle, L.D., Rioux, F.M., Mackinnon, M.J., and Innis, S.M. (1992) Formula α-Linolenic [18∶3(n−3)] and Linoleic [18∶2 (n−6)] Acid Influence Neonatal Piglet Liver and Brain Saturated Fatty Acids, as Well as Docosahexaenoic Acid [22∶6(n−3)], Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1125, 262–267.
Arbuckle, L.D., Mackinnon, M.J., and Innis, S.M. (1994) Formula 18∶2(n−6) and 18∶3(n−3) Content and Ratio Influence Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in the Developing Piglet Liver and Central Nervous System, J. Nutr. 124, 289–298.
Arbuckle, L.D., and Innis, S.M. (1992) Docosahexaenoic Acid in Developing Brain and Retina of Piglets Fed High or Low α-Linolenate Formula with and Without Fish Oil, Lipids 27, 89–93.
Rooke, J.A., Bland, I.M., and Edwards, S.A. (1998) Effect of Maternal Fatty Acid Supply on Umbilical Cord and Piglet Tissue Composition, Biochem. Soc. Trans. 26, S90.
Rooke, J.A., Bland, I.M., and Edwards, S.A. (1999) Relationships Between Fatty Acid Status of Sow Plasma and That of Umbilical Cord, Plasma and Tissues of Newborn Piglets When Sows Were Fed on Diets Containing Tuna Oil or Soyabean Oil in Late Pregnancy, Br. J. Nutr. 82, 213–221.
Rooke, J.A., Sinclair, A.G., and Ewen, M. (2001) Changes in Piglet Tissue Composition at Birth in Response to Increasing Maternal Intake of Long-Chain n−3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Are Non-linear, Br. J. Nutr. 86, 461–470.
AOCS (1997) Official Methods and Recommended Practices of the American Oil Chemists' Society, 5th edn., (Firestone, D., ed.), AOCS Press, Champaign, Method Ba 3–38.
AOAC International (1996) Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International, 16th edn. (Cunniff, P., ed.), AOAC International, Gaithersburg, MD, Methods 990.03 and 925.23.
Bazinet, R.P., McMillan, E.G., Seebaransingh, R., Hayes, A.M., and Cunnane, S.C. (2003) Whole-Body β-Oxidation of 18∶2n−6 and 18∶3n−3 in the Pig Varies Markedly with Weaning Strategy and Dietary 18∶3n−3, J. Lipid Res. 44, 314–319.
Bowen, R.A., and Clandinin, M.T. (2000) High Dietary 18∶3n−3 Increases the 18∶3n−3 but Not the 22∶6n−3 Content in the Whole Body, Brain, Skin, Epididymal Fat Pads, and Muscles of Suckling Rat Pups, Lipids 35, 389–394.
Makrides, M., Neumann, M.A., Byard, R.W., Simmer, K., and Gibson, R.A. (1994) Fatty Acid Composition of Brain, Retina, and Erythrocytes in Breast- and Formula-Fed Infants, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 60, 189–194.
Fu, Z., and Sinclair, A.J. (2000) Increased α-Linolenic Acid Intake Increases Tissue α-Linolenic Acid Content and Apparent Oxidation with Little Effect on Tissue Docosahexaenoic Acid in the Guinea Pig, Lipids 35, 395–400.
Cunnane, S.C., Ryan, M.A., Nadeau, C.R., Bazinet, R.P., Musa-Veloso, K., and McCloy, U. (2003) Why Is Carbon from Some Polyunsaturates Extensively Recycled into Lipid Synthesis? Lipids 38, 477–484.
Jones, P.J., Pencharz, P.B., and Clandinin, M.T. (1985) Whole Body Oxidation of Dietary Fatty Acids: Implications for Energy Utilization, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 42, 769–777.
Leyton, J., Drury, P.J., and Crawford, M.A. (1987) Differential Oxidation of Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids in vivo in the Rat, Br. J. Nutr. 57, 383–393.
Cunnane, S.C., Hamadeh, M.J., Liede, A.C., Thompson, L.U., Wolever, T.M., and Jenkins, D.J. (1995) Nutritional Attributes of Traditional Flaxseed in Healthy Young Adults, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 61, 62–68.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
About this article
Cite this article
Bazinet, R.P., McMillan, E.G. & Cunnane, S.C. Dietary α-linolenic acid increases the n−3 PUFA content of sow's milk and the tissues of the suckling piglet. Lipids 38, 1045–1049 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-006-1159-9
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-006-1159-9