Abstract
Virtual anthropology consists of the introduction of modern slice imaging to biological and forensic anthropology. Thanks to this non-invasive scientific revolution, some classifications and staging systems, first based on dry bone analysis, can be applied to cadavers with no need for specific preparation, as well as to living persons. Estimation of bone and dental age is one of the possibilities offered by radiology. Biological age can be estimated in clinical forensic medicine as well as in living persons. Virtual anthropology may also help the forensic pathologist to estimate a deceased person’s age at death, which together with sex, geographical origin and stature, is one of the important features determining a biological profile used in reconstructive identification. For this forensic purpose, the radiological tools used are multislice computed tomography and, more recently, X-ray free imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasound investigations. We present and discuss the value of these investigations for age estimation in anthropology.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Dedouit F, Savall F, Mokrane FZ, Rousseau H, Crubezy E, Rouge D et al (2014) Virtual anthropology and forensic identification using multidetector CT. Br J Radiol 87:20130468
Brogdon BG (1998) Forensic radiology. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Beauthier J-P (2008) Traité de médecine légale. De Boeck, Bruxelles
Ubelaker DH (1978) Human skeletal remains: excavation, analysis, interpretation. Aldine Publishing, Chicago
Scheuer L, Black SM (2004) The juvenile skeleton. Elsevier Academic Press, Amsterdam
Schmeling A, Reisinger W, Geserick G, Olze A (2006) Age estimation of unaccompanied minors part I. General considerations. Forensic Sci Int 159:61–64
Schmeling A, Krocker K, Wirth I (2013) History, present situation and perspectives of forensic age diagnostics of living persons. Arch Kriminol 231:145–155
Wittschieber D, Schulz R, Vieth V, Kuppers M, Bajanowski T, Ramsthaler F et al (2014) The value of sub-stages and thin slices for the assessment of the medial clavicular epiphysis: a prospective multi-center CT study. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 10:163–169
Wittschieber D, Ottow C, Vieth V, Kuppers M, Schulz R, Hassu J et al (2014) Projection radiography of the clavicle: still recommendable for forensic age diagnostics in living individuals? Int J Legal Med 129:187–193
Ramsthaler F, Proschek P, Betz W, Verhoff MA (2009) How reliable are the risk estimates for X-ray examinations in forensic age estimations? A safety update. Int J Legal Med 123:199–204
Schulz R, Zwiesigk P, Schiborr M, Schmidt S, Schmeling A (2008) Ultrasound studies on the time course of clavicular ossification. Int J Legal Med 122:163–167
Saint-Martin P, Rerolle C, Pucheux J, Dedouit F, Telmon N (2014) Contribution of distal femur MRI to the determination of the 18-year limit in forensic age estimation. Int J Legal Med. doi:10.1007/s00414-014-1020-2
Kramer JA, Schmidt S, Jurgens KU, Lentschig M, Schmeling A, Vieth V (2014) Forensic age estimation in living individuals using 3.0 T MRI of the distal femur. Int J Legal Med 128:509–514
Schmidt S, Schiborr M, Pfeiffer H, Schmeling A, Schulz R (2013) Age dependence of epiphyseal ossification of the distal radius in ultrasound diagnostics. Int J Legal Med 127:831–838
Schulz R, Schiborr M, Pfeiffer H, Schmidt S, Schmeling A (2013) Sonographic assessment of the ossification of the medial clavicular epiphysis in 616 individuals. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 9:351–357
Castriota-Scanderbeg A, De Micheli V, Scarale MG, Bonetti MG, Cammisa M (1996) Precision of sonographic measurement of articular cartilage: inter- and intraobserver analysis. Skeletal Radiol 25:545–549
Bilgili Y, Hizel S, Kara SA, Sanli C, Erdal HH, Altinok D (2003) Accuracy of skeletal age assessment in children from birth to 6 years of age with the ultrasonographic version of the Greulich-Pyle atlas. J Ultrasound Med 22:683–690
Mentzel HJ, Vilser C, Eulenstein M, Schwartz T, Vogt S, Bottcher J et al (2005) Assessment of skeletal age at the wrist in children with a new ultrasound device. Pediatr Radiol 35:429–433
Khan KM, Miller BS, Hoggard E, Somani A, Sarafoglou K (2009) Application of ultrasound for bone age estimation in clinical practice. J Pediatr 154:243–247
Schulz R, Muhler M, Reisinger W, Schmidt S, Schmeling A (2008) Radiographic staging of ossification of the medial clavicular epiphysis. Int J Legal Med 122:55–58
Quirmbach F, Ramsthaler F, Verhoff MA (2009) Evaluation of the ossification of the medial clavicular epiphysis with a digital ultrasonic system to determine the age threshold of 21 years. Int J Legal Med 123:241–245
Schmidt S, Schmeling A, Zwiesigk P, Pfeiffer H, Schulz R (2011) Sonographic evaluation of apophyseal ossification of the iliac crest in forensic age diagnostics in living individuals. Int J Legal Med 125:271–276
Wagner UA, Diedrich V, Schmitt O (1995) Determination of skeletal maturity by ultrasound: a preliminary report. Skeletal Radiol 24:417–420
Hillewig E, De Tobel J, Cuche O, Vandemaele P, Piette M, Verstraete K (2011) Magnetic resonance imaging of the medial extremity of the clavicle in forensic bone age determination: a new four-minute approach. Eur Radiol 21:757–767
Kramer JA, Schmidt S, Jurgens KU, Lentschig M, Schmeling A, Vieth V (2014) The use of magnetic resonance imaging to examine ossification of the proximal tibial epiphysis for forensic age estimation in living individuals. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 10:306–313
Dedouit F, Auriol J, Rousseau H, Rouge D, Crubezy E, Telmon N (2012) Age assessment by magnetic resonance imaging of the knee: a preliminary study. Forensic Sci Int 217:231–237
Dvorak J (2009) Detecting over-age players using wrist MRI: science partnering with sport to ensure fair play. Br J Sports Med 43:884–885
Dvorak J, George J, Junge A, Hodler J (2007) Application of MRI of the wrist for age determination in international U-17 soccer competitions. Br J Sports Med 41:497–500
Dvorak J, George J, Junge A, Hodler J (2007) Age determination by magnetic resonance imaging of the wrist in adolescent male football players. Br J Sports Med 41:45–52
Schmidt S, Muhler M, Schmeling A, Reisinger W, Schulz R (2007) Magnetic resonance imaging of the clavicular ossification. Int J Legal Med 121:321–324
Hillewig E, Degroote J, Van der Paelt T, Visscher A, Vandemaele P, Lutin B et al (2013) Magnetic resonance imaging of the sternal extremity of the clavicle in forensic age estimation: towards more sound age estimates. Int J Legal Med 127:677–689
Kellinghaus M, Schulz R, Vieth V, Schmidt S, Pfeiffer H, Schmeling A (2010) Enhanced possibilities to make statements on the ossification status of the medial clavicular epiphysis using an amplified staging scheme in evaluating thin-slice CT scans. Int J Legal Med 124:321–325
Wittschieber D, Vieth V, Timme M, Dvorak J, Schmeling A (2014) Magnetic resonance imaging of the iliac crest: age estimation in under-20 soccer players. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 10:198–202
Saint-Martin P, Rerolle C, Dedouit F, Bouilleau L, Rousseau H, Rouge D et al (2013) Age estimation by magnetic resonance imaging of the distal tibial epiphysis and the calcaneum. Int J Legal Med 127:1023–1030
Saint-Martin P, Rerolle C, Dedouit F, Rousseau H, Rouge D, Telmon N (2014) Evaluation of an automatic method for forensic age estimation by magnetic resonance imaging of the distal tibial epiphysis–a preliminary study focusing on the 18-year threshold. Int J Legal Med 128:675–683
Brogdon BG (2000) Scope of forensic radiology. Crit Rev Diagn Imaging 41:43–67
Sauvegrain J, Nahum H, Carle F (1962) Bone maturation. Importance of the determination of the bone age. Methods of evaluation (general review). Ann Radiol (Paris) 5:535–541
Sauvegrain J, Nahum H, Bronstein H (1962) Study of bone maturation of the elbow. Ann Radiol (Paris) 5:542–550
Schmeling A, Schulz R, Reisinger W, Muhler M, Wernecke KD, Geserick G (2004) Studies on the time frame for ossification of the medial clavicular epiphyseal cartilage in conventional radiography. Int J Legal Med 118:5–8
Greulich WW, Pyle SI (1959) Radiographic atlas of skeletal development of the hand and wrist. Stanford University Press, Stanford
Pyle SI, Hoerr NL (1969) A radiographic standard of reference for the growing knee. C. C Thomas, Springfield
Tanner JM, Landt KW, Cameron N, Carter BS, Patel J (1983) Prediction of adult height from height and bone age in childhood. A new system of equations (TW Mark II) based on a sample including very tall and very short children. Arch Dis Child 58:767–776
Bouchard M, Sempe M (2001) Maturos 4.0 CD: un nouvel outil d’évaluation de la maturation squelettique. Biom Hum Anthropol 19:9–12
Sempe M (2004) Détermination d’un ‘‘Age’’ en Pédiatrie. Biom Hum Anthropol 22:99–120
Bassed RB, Briggs C, Drummer OH (2010) Analysis of time of closure of the spheno-occipital synchondrosis using computed tomography. Forensic Sci Int 200:161–164
Robinson C, Eisma R, Morgan B, Jeffery A, Graham EA, Black S et al (2008) Anthropological measurement of lower limb and foot bones using multi-detector computed tomography. J Forensic Sci 53:1289–1295
Verhoff MA, Ramsthaler F, Krahahn J, Deml U, Gille RJ, Grabherr S et al (2008) Digital forensic osteology-possibilities in cooperation with the Virtopsy project. Forensic Sci Int 174:152–156
Fazekas IG, Kâosa F (1978) Forensic fetal osteology. Akadâemiai Kiadâo, Budapest
Maresh MM (1964) Variations in patterns of linear growth and skeletal maturation. Phys Ther 44:881–890
Adalian P, Piercecchi-Marti MD, Bourliere-Najean B, Panuel M, Fredouille C, Dutour O et al (2001) Postmortem assessment of fetal diaphyseal femoral length: validation of a radiographic methodology. J Forensic Sci 46:215–219
Adalian P, Piercecchi-Marti MD, Bourliere-Najean B, Panuel M, Leonetti G, Dutour O (2002) New formula for the determination of fetal age. C R Biol 325:261–269
Cameriere R, De Luca S, De Angelis D, Merelli V, Giuliodori A, Cingolani M et al (2012) Reliability of Schmeling’s stages of ossification of medial clavicular epiphyses and its validity to assess 18 years of age in living subjects. Int J Legal Med 126:923–932
Kreitner KF, Schweden FJ, Riepert T, Nafe B, Thelen M (1998) Bone age determination based on the study of the medial extremity of the clavicle. Eur Radiol 8:1116–1122
Schulz R, Muhler M, Mutze S, Schmidt S, Reisinger W, Schmeling A (2005) Studies on the time frame for ossification of the medial epiphysis of the clavicle as revealed by CT scans. Int J Legal Med 119:142–145
Schulze D, Rother U, Fuhrmann A, Richel S, Faulmann G, Heiland M (2006) Correlation of age and ossification of the medial clavicular epiphysis using computed tomography. Forensic Sci Int 158:184–189
Kellinghaus M, Schulz R, Vieth V, Schmidt S, Schmeling A (2010) Forensic age estimation in living subjects based on the ossification status of the medial clavicular epiphysis as revealed by thin-slice multidetector computed tomography. Int J Legal Med 124:149–154
Muhler M, Schulz R, Schmidt S, Schmeling A, Reisinger W (2006) The influence of slice thickness on assessment of clavicle ossification in forensic age diagnostics. Int J Legal Med 120:15–17
Wittschieber D, Schulz R, Vieth V, Kuppers M, Bajanowski T, Ramsthaler F et al (2014) Influence of the examiner’s qualification and sources of error during stage determination of the medial clavicular epiphysis by means of computed tomography. Int J Legal Med 128:183–191
Keats TE, Anderson MW (2012) Atlas of normal roentgen variants that may simulate disease. Mosby, Philadelphia
Dedouit F, Telmon N, Costagliola R, Otal P, Florence LL, Joffre F et al (2007) New identification possibilities with postmortem multislice computed tomography. Int J Legal Med 121:507–510
Dedouit F, Telmon N, Costagliola R, Otal P, Joffre F, Rouge D (2007) Virtual anthropology and forensic identification: report of one case. Forensic Sci Int 173:182–187
Barrier P, Dedouit F, Braga J, Joffre F, Rouge D, Rousseau H et al (2009) Age at death estimation using multislice computed tomography reconstructions of the posterior pelvis. J Forensic Sci 54:773–778
Dedouit F, Bindel S, Gainza D, Blanc A, Joffre F, Rouge D et al (2008) Application of the Iscan method to two- and three-dimensional imaging of the sternal end of the right fourth rib. J Forensic Sci 53:288–295
Telmon N, Gaston A, Chemla P, Blanc A, Joffre F, Rouge D (2005) Application of the Suchey-Brooks method to three-dimensional imaging of the pubic symphysis. J Forensic Sci 50:507–512
Chiba F, Makino Y, Motomura A, Inokuchi G, Torimitsu S, Ishii N et al (2014) Age estimation by quantitative features of pubic symphysis using multidetector computed tomography. Int J Legal Med 128:667–673
Lopez-Alcaraz M, Gonzalez PM, Aguilera IA, Lopez MB (2014) Image analysis of pubic bone for age estimation in a computed tomography sample. Int J Legal Med 129:335–346
Moskovitch G, Dedouit F, Braga J, Rouge D, Rousseau H, Telmon N (2010) Multislice computed tomography of the first rib: a useful technique for bone age assessment. J Forensic Sci 55:865–870
Chiba F, Makino Y, Motomura A, Inokuchi G, Torimitsu S, Ishii N et al (2013) Age estimation by multidetector CT images of the sagittal suture. Int J Legal Med 127:1005–1011
Schaefer M, Scheuer L, Black SM (2009) Juvenile osteology: a laboratory and field manual. Academic, London
Minier M, Maret D, Dedouit F, Vergnault M, Mokrane FZ, Rousseau H et al (2014) Fetal age estimation using MSCT scans of deciduous tooth germs. Int J Legal Med 128:177–182
Schour I, Massler M (1937) Rate and gradient of growth in human deciduous teeth with special reference to neonatal ring. J Dent Res 16:349–350
Moorrees CF (1964) Dental development—a growth study based on tooth eruption as a measure of physiologic age. Rep Congr Eur Orthod Soc 40:92–106
Moorrees CF, Fanning EA, Hunt EE Jr (1963) Age variation of formation stages for ten permanent teeth. J Dent Res 42:1490–1502
Moorrees CF, Fanning EA, Hunt EE Jr (1963) Formation and resorption of three deciduous teeth in children. Am J Phys Anthropol 21:205–213
Demirjian A (1978) Dental development: index of physiologic maturation. Med Hyg (Geneve) 36:3154–3159
Demirjian A (1980) Dental development: an index of physiological maturity. Union Med Can 109:832–839
Demirjian A, Goldstein H (1976) New systems for dental maturity based on seven and four teeth. Ann Hum Biol 3:411–421
Willems G (2001) A review of the most commonly used dental age estimation techniques. J Forensic Odontostomatol 19:9–17
Willems G, Van Olmen A, Spiessens B, Carels C (2001) Dental age estimation in Belgian children: Demirjian’s technique revisited. J Forensic Sci 46:893–895
Cameriere R, Ferrante L, Cingolani M (2006) Age estimation in children by measurement of open apices in teeth. Int J Legal Med 120:49–52
Mincer HH, Harris EF, Berryman HE (1993) The A.B.F.O. study of third molar development and its use as an estimator of chronological age. J Forensic Sci 38:379–390
Schmeling A, Olze A, Reisinger W, Rosing FW, Geserick G (2003) Forensic age diagnostics of living individuals in criminal proceedings. Homo 54:162–169
Gonsior M, Ramsthaler F, Gehl A, Verhoff MA (2014) Morphology as a cause for different classification of the ossification stage of the medial clavicular epiphysis by ultrasound, computed tomography, and macroscopy. Int J Legal Med 127:1013–1021
Curate F, Albuquerque A, Cunha EM (2013) Age at death estimation using bone densitometry: testing the Fernandez Castillo and Lopez Ruiz method in two documented skeletal samples from Portugal. Forensic Sci Int 226:291–296
Masset C (1971) Erreurs systématiques dans la détermination de l’âge par les sutures crâniennes. Bulletins et mémoires de la société d’anthropologie de Paris 12:85–105
Black S, Aggrawal A, J. P-J (2010) Age Estimation in the Living: the Practitioner’s Guide Wiley-Blackwell, Amsterdam
Acknowledgments
Sincere appreciation is expressed to Nina Crowte for her assistance in manuscript preparation.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical standards
For this type of study (Retrospective study) formal consent is not required.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Dedouit, F., Saint-Martin, P., Mokrane, FZ. et al. Virtual anthropology: useful radiological tools for age assessment in clinical forensic medicine and thanatology. Radiol med 120, 874–886 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11547-015-0525-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11547-015-0525-1