Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

A life cycle assessment of residential waste management and prevention

  • LCA OF WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
  • Published:
The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

The oft-cited waste hierarchy is considered an important rule of thumb to identify preferential waste management options and places waste prevention at the top. Nevertheless, it has been claimed that waste prevention can sometimes be less favorable than recycling because (1) recycling decreases only the primary production of materials, whereas waste prevention may reduce a combination of both primary and low-impact secondary production, and (2) waste prevention decreases the quantity of material recycled downstream and the avoided impacts associated with recycling. In response to this claim, this study evaluates the life cycle effects of waste prevention activities (WPAs) on a residential waste management system.

Methods

This life cycle assessment (LCA) contrasts the net impacts of a large residential solid waste management system (including sanitary landfilling, anaerobic digestion, composting, and recycling) with a system that incorporates five WPAs, implemented at plausible levels (preventing a total of 3.6 % of waste generation tonnage) without diminishing product service consumption. WPAs addressed in this LCA reduce the collected tonnage of addressed advertising mail, disposable plastic shopping bags, newspapers, wine and spirit packaging, and yard waste (grass).

Results and discussion

In all cases, the WPAs reduce the net midpoint and endpoint level impacts of the residential waste management system. If WPAs are incorporated, the lower impacts from waste collection, transportation, sorting, and disposal as well as from the avoided upstream production of goods, more than compensate for the diminished net benefits associated with recycling and the displaced electricity from landfill gas utilization.

Conclusions

The results substantiate the uppermost placement of waste prevention within the waste hierarchy. Moreover, further environmental benefits from waste prevention can be realized by targeting WPAs at goods that will be landfilled and at those with low recycled content.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Association of Canadian Distillers (2008) Annual statistics

  • Bare J, Norris G, Pennington D, McKone T (2003) TRACI: the tool for the reduction and assessment of chemical and other environmental impacts. J Ind Ecol 6(3–4):49–78

  • Canada Post (2007) Newsroom - Letters to the Editor (Published letter by François Legault, Manager, National Media Relations, Canada Post). Available at: http://www.canadapost.ca/cpo/mc/aboutus/news/letters/brampton_admail.jsf. Accessed 31 Mar 2011

  • Canada Post (n.d.) Instant answers. How do I stop delivery of admail items? Available at: http://www.canadapost.ca/cpo/mc/personal/support/helpcentre/receiving/admail_stop.jsf. Accessed 16 Jan 2011

  • Canadian Newspaper Association (2009) Circulation data report 2008. Canadian Newspaper Association, Toronto, 16pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Canadian Newspaper Association (2010) Circulation data report 2009. Canadian Newspaper Association, Toronto, 19pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Canadian Plastics Industry Association (CPIA) (n.d.) Plastic bags: Reuse & recycling. Available at: http://www.plastics.ca/Recycling/PlasticBags/ReuseRecycling/index.php. Accessed 16 Jan 2011

  • Canadian Vintners Association (2008) Annual statistics

  • City of Toronto (2007) Proposed Initiatives and Financing Model to Get to 70 % Solid Waste Diversion by 2010. Prepared for the City of Toronto Executive Committee by City of Toronto Solid Waste Management Services. Reference No. p:/2007/swms/may/011EC.doc. Available at: http://www.toronto.ca/legdocs/mmis/2007/ex/bgrd/backgroundfile-3799.pdf. Accessed 1 Dec 2013

  • City of Toronto (2008) 2008 breakdown by material of residential waste diversion. Available at: http://www.toronto.ca/garbage/pdf/2008-chart.pdf. Accessed 21 Aug 2010

  • City of Toronto (2010a) Personal communication (numerous representatives). City of Toronto Solid Waste Management Services. Toronto, ON, Canada. 30 Jun 2010 and 23 Dec 2010

  • City of Toronto (2010b) City of Toronto: Solid Waste Management - Green Bin Program. Frequently asked questions. Available at: http://www.toronto.ca/greenbin/faq.htm. Accessed 21 Aug 2010

  • City of Toronto (2011) 2011 Community Environment Days. Available at: http://www.toronto.ca/environment_days/. Accessed 31 Oct 2011

  • City of Toronto (n.d.) Garbage bin sizes. Available at: http://www1.toronto.ca/wps/portal/contentonly?vgnextoid=5911d187c3b02410VgnVCM10000071d60f89RCRD&vgnextchannel=239c433112b02410VgnVCM10000071d60f89RCRD&vgnextfmt=default. Accessed 27 Nov 2013

  • Cleary J (2009) Life cycle assessments of municipal solid waste management systems: a comparative analysis of selected peer reviewed literature. Environ Int 35(8):1256–1266

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cleary J (2010) The incorporation of waste prevention activities into life cycle assessments of municipal solid waste management systems: methodological issues. Int J Life Cycle Assess 15(6):579–589

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cleary J (2013) Life cycle assessments of wine and spirit packaging at the product and the municipal scale: a Toronto, Canada case study. J Clean Prod 44:143–151

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coleman T, Masoni P, Dryer A, McDougall F (2003) International expert group on life cycle assessment for integrated waste management. Int J LCA 8(3):175–178

  • Cox J, Giorgi S, Sharp V, Strange K, Wilson D, Blakey N (2010) Household waste prevention—a review of evidence. Waste Manag Res 28:193–219

    Google Scholar 

  • Doka G (2009) Life cycle inventories of waste treatment services. Ecoinvent report no. 13. Swiss Centre for Life Cycle Inventories. Dubendorf, Switzerland. 133pp

  • Earthshift (2013) US-EI database. Description available at: http://www.earthshift.com/software/simapro/USEI-database. Accessed 3 Mar 2014

  • Ekvall T, Assefa G, Björklund A, Eriksson O, Finnveden G (2007) What life-cycle assessment does and does not do in assessments of waste management. Waste Manage 27:989–996

    Google Scholar 

  • European Commission (2005) Impact assessment on the thematic strategy on the prevention and recycling of waste. COM 666 final

  • Exchange Magazine (2006) Plastic Shopping Bags Too Valuable To Be Going To Waste - Industry Wants Them Back. Available at: http://www.exchangemagazine.com/XQuarterly/Archive-associations-27-Mar06.html. Accessed 27 Jan 2011

  • Federation of Canadian Municipalities (FCM) (2004) Solid waste as a resource: Workbook for sustainable communities. FCM. Toronto, ON, Canada. 81 pp. Available at: https://www.fcm.ca/Documents/tools/GMF/Solid_Waste_as_a_Resource_Workbook_EN.pdf. Accessed 27 Nov 2013

  • Flyer Distribution Standards Association (FDSA) (2007) Reach (monthly newsletter of the FDSA, in partnership with the Retail Council of Canada). Available at: http://www.fdsa-canada.org/newsletter/december_2007.pdf. Accessed 25 Jul 2013

  • Franklin Associates (2010) Final Report. Life cycle inventory of 100 % postconsumer HDPE and PET recycled resin from postconsumer containers and packaging. Available at: http://www.americanchemistry.com/s_plastics/sec_pfpg.asp?CID=1439&DID=10907. Accessed 10 Oct 2010

  • Frischknecht R (2010) LCI modelling approaches applied on recycling of materials in view of environmental sustainability, risk perception and eco-efficiency. Int J Life Cycle Assess 15:666–671

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gentil E, Gallo D, Christensen T (2011) Environmental evaluation of municipal waste prevention. Waste Manage 31:2371–2379

    Google Scholar 

  • Goedkoop M, Heijungs R, Huijbregts M, De Schryver A; Struijs J, van Zelm R (2009) ReCiPe 2008: A life cycle impact assessment method which comprises harmonised category indicators at the midpoint and the endpoint level. First edition. Report I: Characterisation. Rumte en Milieu. Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting. Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieubeheer. Available at: http://www.leidenuniv.nl/cml/ssp/publications/recipe_characterisation.pdf. Accessed 23 Sept 2013

  • Hertwich E (2005) Consumption and the rebound effect: an industrial ecology perspective. J Ind Ecol 9(1–2):85–98

    Google Scholar 

  • Hischier R, Reichart I (2003) Multifunctional electronic media—traditional media: the problem of an adequate functional unit. Int J Life Cycle Assess 8(4):201–208

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoornweg D, Bhada-Tata P (2012) What a waste: a global review of solid waste management. Urban development series; knowledge papers no. 15. Washington, DC: World Bank. Available at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2012/03/16537275/waste-global-review-solid-waste-management. Accessed 2 Nov 2013

  • ICF Consulting (2005) Determination of the Impact of Waste Management Activities on Greenhouse Gas Emissions: 2005 Update. Toronto, Ontario: ICF Consulting. Submitted to: Environment Canada and Natural Resources Canada. Contract No. K2216-04-0006. Available at: http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca.minerals-metals/files/pdf/mms-smm/busi-indu/rad-rad/pdf/icf-finr-eng.pdf. Accessed 28 Aug 2013

  • Independent Electricity System Operator (IESO) (2009) IESO 2008 Electricity Figures Show Record Levels of Hydroelectric Power. News Release. Available at: http://www.ieso.ca/imoweb/media/md_newsitem.asp?newsID=4458. Accessed 27 Jun 2010

  • International Energy Agency (IEA) (2008) IEA Energy Statistics – For Electricity/Heat (2008). Available at: http://www.iea.org/stats/prodresult.asp?PRODUCT=Electricity/Heat. Accessed 27 Dec 2010

  • International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (2006) Environmental management—Life cycle assessment. Principles and framework. ISO 14040: 2006

  • Landfill Energy Systems (n.d.) Carleton Farms Landfill. Available at: http://www.landfillenergy.com/proven-solutions/projects/michigan/carleton-farms-landfill/. Accessed 17 May 2013

  • Leighton C (2010) Refillable wine bottles. Solid Waste & Recycling. October/November 2010 issue: 8-16. Available at: http://www.solidwastemag.com/issues/de.aspx?id=5474&er=NA. Accessed 8 Sept 2013

  • Liquor Control Board of Ontario (LCBO) (2008) 2008 Volume sales data for wine and spirits. Unpublished

  • Magaud V, Van Durme G, Bengoa X (2010) Rapport final. Analyse du cycle de vie de contenants de bière au Québec. Centre Interuniversitaire de recherché sur le cycle de vie des produits, procédés, et services. Available from: http://www.recyc-quebec.gouv.qc.ca/Upload/publications/consigne/2010/Analyse-cycle-biere-rap.pdf. Accessed 18 Feb 2012

  • Matsuda T, Yano J, Hirai Y, Sakai S (2012) Life-cycle greenhouse gas inventory analysis of household waste management and food waste reduction activities in Kyoto, Japan. Int J LCA 17:743–752

  • Mendes M, Aramaki T, Hanaki K (2004) Comparison of the environmental impact of incineration and landfilling in Sao Paulo City as determined by LCA. Resour Conserv Recycl 41:47–63

  • Moberg Å, Johansson M, Finnveden G, Jonsson A (2010) Printed and tablet e-paper newspaper from an environmental perspective—a screening life cycle assessment. Environ Impact Asses 30(3):177–191

    Google Scholar 

  • Mohareb A, Warith M, Diaz R (2008) Modelling greenhouse gas emissions for municipal solid waste management strategies in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Resour Conserv Recycl 52:1241–1251

    Google Scholar 

  • Morrow G (Personal communication) Michigan Department of Environmental Quality. Office of Waste Management and Radiological Protection. Southeast Michigan District Office: Warren, MI, United States. 17 May 2013

  • National Association for PET Container Resources (NAPCOR) (2008) 2008 report on postconsumer PET container recycling activity. Available from: http://www.napcor.com/pdf/2008_Report.pdf. Accessed 25 Mar 2012

  • Nessi S, Rigamonti L, Grosso M (2012) LCA of waste prevention activities: a case study for drinking water in Italy. J Environ Manage 108:73–83

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nessi S, Rigamonti L, Grosso M (2013) Discussion on methods to include prevention activities in waste management LCA. Int J Life Cycle Assess 18:1358–1373

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Norris G (2003) SimaPro database manual: the Franklin US LCI library. Available at: http://www.pre-sustainability.com/download/manuals/DatabaseManualFranklinUS98.pdf. Accessed 1 Mar 2014

  • Ontario Plastic Bag Reduction Task Group (2008) First Annual Report. Available at: http://www.wdo.ca/files/domain4116/Annual%20Report%20-%20Plastic%20Bag%20Task%20Group%20-%20Dec08.pdf. Accessed 16 Jan 2011

  • Ontario Plastic Bag Reduction Task Group (2010) Progress Report 2008/2009. Available at: https://www.rco.on.ca/uploads/File/Progress-Report-2008-09---December-7-2010_FINAL.pdf. Accessed 24 Nov 2013

  • Rigamonti L, Grosso M, Caterina M (2009) Influence of assumptions about selection and recycling efficiencies on the LCA of integrated waste management systems. Int J Life Cycle Assess 14:411–419

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Salhofer S, Obersteiner G, Schneider F, Lebersorger S (2008) Potentials for the prevention of municipal solid waste. Waste Manage 28:245–259

    Google Scholar 

  • Saner D, Walser T, Vadenbo C (2012) End-of-life and waste management in life cycle assessment—Zurich, 6 December 2011. Int J Life Cycle Assess 17:504–510

    Google Scholar 

  • Scarborough Research and Newspaper National Network LP (2010) Telling the whole story: Analysis Supports Readership as Key Metric for Planning and Buying Newspaper Advertising. Available at: http://www.scarborough.com/press_releases/Scarborough%20NNN%20Study%20Design%20Draft%20FINALa.pdf. Accessed 2 Feb 2011

  • Sharp V, Giorgi S, Wilson D (2010) Delivery and impact of household waste prevention intervention campaigns (at the local level). Waste Manag Res 28:256–268

    Google Scholar 

  • Shin E, Shin H, Park J, Kim H (2005) Environmental and economic assessment of landfill gas electricity generation in Korea using LEAP model. Energy Policy 33(10):1261–1270

    Google Scholar 

  • Statistics Canada (2008a) CANSIM. Table 051-0046. Catalogue no. 91C0029

  • Statistics Canada (2008b) CHASS Trade Analyser: Canadian Imports Data. See Cleary (2013) for HS10 Codes used

  • Stewardship Ontario (2006a) Multi-Family Waste Audit Program. Toronto (Downtown): Summer 2005, Fall 2005, Winter 2006, Spring 2006 (assumed 50 % of multiple unit dwellings). Toronto (Scarborough) Multiple Unit Dwellings: Winter 2006, Spring 2006, Summer 2006, Fall 2005 (assumed 50 % of multiple unit dwellings). Available at: http://www.stewardshipontario.ca/eefund/projects/audits/waste_audit_mf.htm. Accessed 16 Mar 2009

  • Stewardship Ontario (2006b) Single Family Waste Audit Program. Toronto Single Family Dwellings: Winter 2005, Spring 2005, Summer 2005, Fall 2005. Available at: http://www.stewardshipontario.ca/eefund/projects/audits/waste_audit_sf.htm. Accessed 16 Mar 2009

  • The Beer Store (TBS) (2009) Design for the environment: responsible stewardship 2008–2009. Toronto, ON, Canada. 34 pp

  • Thiesen J, Christensen T, Kristensen T, Andersen R, Brunoe B, Gregersen T, Thrane M, Weidema B (2008) Rebound effects of price differences. Int J Life Cycle Assess 13(2):104–114

    Google Scholar 

  • Toronto Star (n.d.) Frequently asked questions. Available at: http://www.thestar.com/faq#printing. Accessed 22 Jan 2011

  • Travacon Research Limited (2007) Final report: An estimate of the freight rate consequences of rail captivity to rail shippers of Canadian forest products. Prepared for Forest Products Association of Canada. Available at: http://www.fpac.ca/publications/Travacon_final_report.pdf. Accessed 13 Apr 2011

  • Umpleby D (Personal communication) Toronto Community News. Toronto, ON, Canada. 7 Nov 2012

  • United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (2006) Solid Waste Management and Greenhouse Gases: A Life-Cycle Assessment of Emissions and Sinks. Available at: http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/wycd/waste/downloads/fullreport.pdf. Accessed 27 Jul 2013

  • US EPA (1994) Waste Prevention, Recycling, and Composting Options: Lessons from 30 US Communities. Available at: http://www.epa.gov/osw/conserve/downloads/recy-com/. Accessed 17 May 2013

  • Verghese K, Lewis H, Fitzpatrick L, Hayes G, Hedditch B (2009) Environmental impacts of shopping bags. Ref number: SPA1039WOW-01. Available at: http://mams.rmit.edu.au/r97dgq3iero9.pdf. Accessed 25 Aug 2013

  • Wassermann G, Schneider F, Hingsamer R, Steyer F, Zinocker K (2004) Werbung auf Wunsch – Modellversuch zur Erprobung von Maßnahmen gegen die Zustellung unerwunschten Werbematerials (Advertising on request – model test for measures against unsolicited advertising), on behalf of the Initiative “Abfallvermeidung in Wien.” Vienna, Austria. Available at: http://www.natuerlichwien.at/files/content_mistnewsdl_1/Endbericht_Werbung_auf_Wunsch2003.pdf. Accessed 20 Mar 2014

  • Waste Diversion Ontario (WDO) (2008) Municipal Datacall: Tonnage. Available at: http://www.wdo.ca/content/?path=page82+item35931. Accessed 29 May 2010

  • Weber C, Koomey J, Matthews H (2010) The energy and climate change implications of different music delivery methods. J Ind Ecol 14(5):754–769

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgment

This research received financial support in the form of a Canada Graduate Scholarship from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada.

Author information

Author notes

  1. Julian Cleary

    Present address: Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto, 33 Willcocks St., Toronto, ON, M5S 3B3, Canada

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Geography, University of Toronto, Sidney Smith Hall, 100 Saint-George Street, Rm. 5047, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G3, Canada

    Julian Cleary

Authors
  1. Julian Cleary
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Julian Cleary.

Additional information

Responsible editor: Adisa Azapagic

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

ESM 1

(PDF 522 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Cleary, J. A life cycle assessment of residential waste management and prevention. Int J Life Cycle Assess 19, 1607–1622 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-014-0767-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-014-0767-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation