Abstract
Raman spectroscopy differentiation of carotenoids has traditionally been based on the ν 1 position (C = C stretching vibrations in the polyene chain) in the 1500–1600 cm−1 range, using a 785 nm excitation laser. However, when the number of conjugated double bonds is similar, as in the cases of zeaxanthin and β-carotene, this distinction is still ambiguous due to the closeness of the Raman bands. This work shows the Raman results, obtained in resonance conditions using a 514 mm laser, on Lecanora campestris and Lecanora atra species, which can be used to differentiate and consequently characterize carotenoids. The presence of the carotenoid found in Lecanoraceae lichens has been demonstrated to depend on the atmospheric pollution level of the environment they inhabit. Astaxanthin, a superb antioxidant, appears as the principal xanthophyll in highly polluted sites, usually together with the UV screening pigment scytonemin; zeaxanthin is the major carotenoid in medium polluted environments, while β-carotene is the major carotenoid in cleaner environments. Based on these observations, an indirect classification of the stress suffered in a given environment can be assessed by simply analysing the carotenoid content in the Lecanoraceae lichens by using resonance Raman imaging.
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Acknowledgments
This work is supported by the DISILICA-1930 project (ref. BIA2014-59124-P) funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) and the European Regional Development Fund (FEDER). Technical support provided by the Raman-LASPEA laboratory of the SGIker (UPV/EHU, MICINN, GV/EJ, ERDF and ESF) is gratefully acknowledged. I. Ibarrondo is grateful to the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU) for her pre-doctoral fellowship. N. Prieto-Taboada acknowledges her grant from the Spanish MICINN and she is grateful to the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU) for their post-doctoral contract.
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Figure S1
a) L. campestris lichen on limestone and b), c) SEM details of the colony. (GIF 1911 kb)
Figure S2
a) Lecanora Muralis lichen in the emplacement; b) the same lichen in greater detail c) SEM image of the colony showing the apothecium and the thallus. (GIF 1758 kb)
Table S1
(DOC 28 kb)
Figure S3
Raman signatures collected on orange areas of the lichen thallus. (a) spectrum related to the photoprotective pigment parietin and (b) signatures of the same pigment together with the main Raman bands of lycopene. (JPEG 96.8 kb)
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Ibarrondo, I., Prieto-Taboada, N., Martínez-Arkarazo, I. et al. Resonance Raman imaging as a tool to assess the atmospheric pollution level: carotenoids in Lecanoraceae lichens as bioindicators. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23, 6390–6399 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5849-9
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5849-9