Abstract
We conduct a standardized survey on risk preferences in 53 countries worldwide and estimate cumulative prospect theory parameters from the data. The parameter estimates show that significant differences on the cross-country level are to some extent robust and related to economic and cultural differences. In particular, a closer look on probability weighting underlines gender differences, economic effects, and cultural impact on probability weighting. The data set is a useful starting point for future research that investigates the impact of risk preferences on the market level.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
These survey results have also been used to shed light on the selection between culture and general risk attitudes in gains and losses (Rieger et al. 2015) and on loss aversion (Wang et al. 2016). An earlier version of the data has also been used to study the prediction quality of various CPT variants (Rieger and Bui 2011).
For more detailed description of the survey, we refer to Rieger et al. (2015).
We tried different specifications of \(w_\pm \) and v and also alternative PT models, but we do not focus on this in the current article, see Rieger and Bui (2011) for details.
There is vast empirical evidence for this behavior in gains and at least for small losses Bosch-Doménech and Silvestre (2006).
The first and fourth lotteries (the lotteries with two positive outcomes and large stakes, respectively) were omitted, since it has been found that such lotteries are difficult to estimate in the standard form of CPT (Rieger and Bui 2011). Moreover, we found that the first lottery question suffered from a relatively large amount of answers that violated first-order stochastic dominance (20%), pointing to mistakes when filling in the questionnaire. In contrast to that, answers to the other lotteries violated first-order stochastic dominance on average only in less than 2% of the cases.
In the last subsection, we have noticed the lack of robustness for these two countries, Portugal and Romania.
In this study, the subjects were asked two questions related to risk attitudes. The first one was “Suppose you are the only income earner in the family, and you have a good job guaranteed to give you and your current family income every year for life. Now, you are given an opportunity to take a new and equally good job. The new job has a 50/50 chance to increase by 50% your standard of living each year during your lifetime. However, the new job also has a 50/50 chance to reduce by X percent your standard of living each year during your lifetime. Circle the maximum X percent reduction in standard of living that you are willing to accept.” The second question was similarly stated, but it was in terms of a portfolio decision rather than an income decision.
We notice that \(\alpha \) and \(\beta \) are positively correlated (\(r=0.64\), \(p<0.01\)), implying that stronger risk aversion in gains is correlated with stronger risk seeking in losses. This can probably be explained by between-person differences in sensitivity to the relative wealth change: when a person is more sensitive to wealth changes with respect to a reference point, then his value function tends to be more concave in gains and more convex in losses, thus leading to lower \(\alpha \) and \(\beta \) values.
We used the classical four dimensions: PDI (power distance index), IDV (individualism), MAS (masculinity), and UAI (uncertainty avoidance index), but omitted the newer and less common dimensions.
Without normalization, the size of the standard deviation depends on the size of the lottery values.
We excluded the five countries with non-robust CPT measurements as defined in Table 5 from this analysis.
Age effects cannot be studied from our data, since our sample was inherently biased towards a young age group.
References
Bosch-Doménech, A., & Silvestre, J. (2006). Reflections on gains and losses: A 2\(\times \)2\(\times \)7 experiment. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 33(3), 217–235.
Breuer, W., Rieger, M. O., & Soypak, C. (2014). The behavioral foundations of corporate dividend policy - a cross-country empirical analysis. Journal of Banking and Finance, 42, 247–265.
De Giorgi, E. G., & Legg, S. (2012). Dynamic portfolio choice and asset pricing with narrow framing and probability weighting. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 36(7), 951–972.
Fan, J. X., & Xiao, J. J. (2006). Cross-cultural differences in risk tolerance: A comparison between Chinese and Americans. Journal of Personal Finance, 5(54–75)
Fehr-Duda, H., De Gennaro, M., & Schubert, R. (2006). Gender, financial risk, and probability weights. Theory and Decision, 60, 283–313.
Gneezy, U., List, J. A., & Wu, G. (2006). The uncertainty effect: When a risky prospect is valued less than its worst possible outcome. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 121, 1283–1309.
Harrison, G. W., Humphrey, S. J., & Verschoor, A. (2010). Choice under uncertainty: Evidence from Ethiopia, India and Uganda. Economic Journal, 120(543), 80–104.
Harrison, G. W., & Rutström, E. E. (2009). Expected utility theory and prospect theory: one wedding and a decent funeral. Experimental Economics, 12(2), 133–158.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s Consequences, Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations. Thousand Oaks CA: Sage Publications.
Hsee, C. K. H. K., & Weber, E. U. (1999). Cross-national differences in risk preference and lay predictions. Journal of Behavioral Deicision Making, 12, 165–179.
Ingersoll, J. (2008). Non-monotonicity of the tversky-kahneman probability-weighting function: A cautionary note. European Financial Management, 14(3), 385–390.
Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect Theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47, 263–291.
Rabin, M. (2000). Risk aversion and expected-utility theory: A calibration theorem. Econometrica, 68(5), 1281–1292.
Rieger, M. O. (2014). Evolutionary stability of prospect theory preferences. Journal of Mathematical Economics, 50, 1–11.
Rieger, M. O., & Bui, T. (2011). Too risk-averse for prospect theory? Modern Economy, 2(4), 691–700.
Rieger, M. O., & Wang, M. (2006). Cumulative prospect theory and the St. Petersburg paradox. Economic Theory, 28(3), 665–679.
Rieger, M. O., Wang, M., & Hens, T. (2013). International evidence on the equity premium puzzle and time discounting. Multinational Finance Journal, 17(3/4), 1–15.
Rieger, M. O., Wang, M., & Hens, T. (2015). Risk preferences around the world. Management Science, 61(3), 637–648.
Schmidt, U., & Zank, H. (2005). What is loss aversion? Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 30(2), 157–167.
Starmer, C. (2000). Developments in non-expected utility theory: The hunt for a descriptive theory of choice under risk. Journal of Economic Literature, 38, 332–382.
Statman, M. (2008), Countries and culture in behavioral finance. CFA Institute Conference Proceedings Quarterly, available at http://www.scu.edu/business/finance/research/upload/Countries-and-cultures-in-BF-2.pdf.
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1992). Advances in Prospect Theory: Cumulative representation of uncertainty. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 5, 297–323.
Vieider, F. M., Chmura, T., Fisher, T., Kusakawa, T., Martinsson, P., Sunday, A., et al. (2015). Within versus between country differences in risk attitudes: Implications for cultural comparisons. Theory and Decision, 78(2), 209–218.
Vieider, F. M., Lefebvre, M., Bouchouicha, R., Chmura, T., Hakimov, R., Krawczyk, M., et al. (2015). Common components of risk and uncertainty attitudes across contexts and domains: Evidence from 30 countries. Journal of European Economic Association, 13(3), 421–452.
von Neumann, J., & Morgenstern, O. (1944). Theory of Games and Economic Behavior. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Wakker, P. P. (2010). Prospect Theory: For Risk and Ambiguity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Wang, M., & Fischbeck, P. (2004a). Similar in how to frame, but different in what to choose. Marketing Bulletin, 15, 17–28.
Wang, M., & Fischbeck, P. S. (2004b). Incorporating framing into prospect theory modeling: A mixture-model approach. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 29(2), 181–197.
Wang, M., Rieger, M. O. Hens, T. (2016), ‘The impact of culture on loss aversion’, Journal of Behavioral Decision Making in press.
Weber, E. U., & Hsee, C. (1998). Cross-cultural differences in risk perception, but cross-cultural similiarities in attitudes towards perceived risk. Management Science, 44(9), 1205–1217.
Zank, H. (2010). On probabilities and loss aversion. Theory and Decision, 68(3), 243–261.
Acknowledgements
We thank Herbert Dawid, Erich Gundlach, Volker Krätschmer, Rolf J. Langhammer, Daniel Schunk, and an anonymous referee for their comments. We are very grateful to all participating universities for their tremendous support. We thank Julia Buge, Chun-Houh Chen, Shiyi Chen, Mihnea Constantinescu, Simona Diaconu, Oliver Dragicevic, Anke Gerber, Wolfgang Härdle, Ljilja Jevtic, Renata Kovalevskaja, Dana Liebmann, Takeshi Momi, Andres Mora, Koji Okada, Hersh Shefrin, Fangfang Tang, Bodo Vogt, Hannelore Weck-Hannemann, Tõnn Talpsepp, Evgeny Plaksen, Xiao-Fei Xie, Nilüfer Caliskan, Levon Mikayelyan, Andres Mora, Ante Busic, Alexander Meskhi, Christos Iossifidis, Janos Mayer, Istvan Laszloffy, Stephan Passon, Salim Cahine, Renata Kovalevskaja, Besart Colaku, Thierry Post, Bjørn Sandvik, Ermira Mehmetaj, Aleksandra Przywuska, Sonja Ratej Pirkovic, Antonio Avillar, Rosemarie Nagel, Pattarake Sarajoti, Haluk Bilge Halas, Markus K. Brunnermaier, Jing Qian, Markus Leippold, Thuy Bui, and numerous other people for generous help on data collection and translation. Financial support by the National Centre of Competence in Research “Financial Valuation and Risk Management” (NCCR FINRISK), Project 3, “Evolution and Foundations of Financial Markets”, and by the University Research Priority Program “Finance and Financial Markets” of the University of Zürich is gratefully acknowledged.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Universities participating in INTRA
Universities participating in INTRA
The following universities participated in INTRA: Catholic University of Angola, Universidad Torcuato Di Tella (Argentina), Universität Innsbruck (Austria), Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt (Austria), University of Adelaide (Australia), Khazar University (Azerbaijan), Catholic University of Leuwen (Belgium), Pan-European University Apeiron (Bosnia-Herzegovina), University of Windsor (Canada), University of British Columbia (Canada), Fudan University (China), Peking University (China), Renmin University (China), Universidad de Chile, Universidad de los Andes (Colombia), Buiseness College Vern’ (Croatia), CERGE-EI (Czech Rep.), University of Southern Denmark, University of Copenhagen (Denmark), Tallinn University of Technology (Estonia), University of Helsinki (Finland), University of Paris (France), Universität Hamburg (Germany), Universität Trier (Germany), Universität Konstanz (Germany), Otto-von-Guericke Universität Magdeburg (Germany), University of Thessaly (Greece), Hong Kong Chinese University, Hong Kong Baptist University (Hong Kong), University of Pécs (Hungary), Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur (India), Ben Gurion University (Israel), NUI Maynooth (Ireland), Università degli Studi di Venezia (Italy), Foreign Trade University (Vietnam), Doshisha University (Japan), American University of Beirut (Lebanon), Vilnius University (Lithuania), University of Luxembourg, University of Malaya (Malaysia), Universidad de Guanajuato (Mexico), MAES Kishinev (Moldova), Massey University (New Zealand), University of Ibadan (Nigeria), NHH Bergen (Norway), University of Lisboa (Portugal), Bucharest Academy of Economic Studies (Romania), Russian Customs Academy Vladivostok (Russia), University of Ljubljana (Slovenia), Seoul National University (South Korea), Universidad pablo de Olavide (Spain), University of Zurich (Switzerland), National Sun Yat-sen University (Taiwan), University of Dar es Salaam (Tanzania), Chulalongkorn University (Thailand), Middle East Technical University (Turkey), Bogazici University (Turkey), Keele University (UK), Emory University (USA), Santa Clara University (USA), and Princeton University (USA).
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Rieger, M.O., Wang, M. & Hens, T. Estimating cumulative prospect theory parameters from an international survey. Theory Decis 82, 567–596 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11238-016-9582-8
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11238-016-9582-8