Abstract
Investigations of racial bias have emphasized stereotypes and other beliefs as central explanatory mechanisms and as legitimating discrimination. In recent theory and research, emotional prejudices have emerged as another, more direct predictor of discrimination. A new comprehensive meta-analysis of 57 racial attitude-discrimination studies finds a moderate relationship between overall attitudes and discrimination. Emotional prejudices are twices as closely related to racial discrimination as stereotypes and beliefs are. Moreover, emotional prejudices are closely related to both observed and self-reported discrimination, whereas stereotypes and beliefs are related only to self-reported discrimination. Implications for justifying discrimination are discussed.
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Notes
Like bias researchers, attitude researchers have also noted the neglect of emotional predictors in their field (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993).
Ajzen and Fishbein’s (1977) model posited that the attitude toward the behavior influenced the behavioral intention, which in turn affected the behavior. Both the attitude toward the behavior and the intention are affected by other factors, such as the social norms in regard to the behavior.
Because of the social desirability issues involved in inter-racial interaction, we coded social desirability pressures on both attitude and behavior measurement, but they had no effect on the attitude-discrimination relationships, so we do not discuss these results, which are however available from the second author (Fiske).
Problems with coding the third type of study—converting these latter results to a simple correlational effect size—concerned whether we want to convert the information into an effect of the first (attitude relating to between-subjects differences in behavior) or the second (attitude relating to within-subjects differences in ingroup versus outgroup behavior) type. Because the current type is based on a between-subjects error term, difficulties arise in converting the effect into one of the second type, which is based on a within-subjects error term, as not enough information was present to correct for the differences in statistics based on between- versus within-subjects error terms. So, the interaction effects were converted to the first type of effect by looking at the relationship between attitude and behavior in the outgroup behavior condition only, and ignoring all of the subjects that were in the ingroup behavior condition. However, for six of the studies reporting an interaction effect, not enough information was present to recode this effect as an r (either the effect was reported only as nonsignificant or only as the F for the interaction without any other information). However, in converting these effects, we are ignoring the relation of the attitude measure to ingroup behavior, and thereby losing possibly valuable information, especially when they found a main effect of attitude on behavior for outgroup and for ingroup targets (e.g., Genthner & Taylor, 1973). So, the size of the correlations in the studies that measured behavior toward outgroup targets only, without reference to behavior toward ingroup targets, may be inflated by this phenomenon. This finding questions the meaning of studies that measure behavior toward outgroup members only. Perhaps some attitude measures simply predict who will be more or less aggressive or conformist, rather than who will behave in a specifically prejudiced manner.
References
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Appendix: Authors and Measures for Each Effect Size
Appendix: Authors and Measures for Each Effect Size
Study authors | Year | Attitude measure | Behavior measure | r |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Bastide & Van Den Berghe | Hypothetical behavior | Actual past behavior | .490 | |
Social norms of behavior (“Should” scale) | Actual past behavior | .510 | ||
Stereotype inferiority or superiority | Actual past behavior | .250 | ||
Berg | E Scale Negro | Autokinetic judgment | −.210 | |
F Scale | Autokinetic judgment | −.140 | ||
Social distance | Autokinetic judgment | −.100 | ||
Brannon et al. | Belief about whether problems occur when Negroes move into a neighborhood | Signing to open housing petition and public support | .213 | |
Housing law survey question | Signing to open housing petition and public support | .506 | ||
Negative stereotyping | Signing to open housing petition and public support | .263 | ||
Bray | Attitude to Jews (Levinson-Sanford scale, 16 items) | Autokinetic influence by Jewish confederate | −.149 | |
Likert scale of attitude toward the Negro (Likert, 1932) | Autokinetic influence by Black confederate | .108 | ||
Brief, Dietz, Cohen, Pugh, & Vaslow. Study one | Modern Racism Scale (McConahay, 1986) | Number of Black applicants selected for job interview (marketing rep.) | .062 | |
Modern Racism Scale (McConahay, 1986) | Number of Black applicants selected for job interview (marketing rep.) | .378 | ||
Brief et al., study two | Modern Racism Scale (McConahay, 1986) | Applicant quality rating in “managerial decision making” role play | .309 | |
Modern Racism Scale (McConahay, 1986) | Applicant quality rating in “managerial decision making” role play | .333 | ||
Modern Racism Scale (McConahay, 1986) | Applicant quality rating in “managerial decision making” role play | −.034 | ||
Brigham, sample two | Affective/Semantic differential factor | Current other-race friends | .280 | |
Affective/Semantic differential factor | Current day-to-day other race contact (fairly voluntary) | .310 | ||
Brigham’s (1993) Attitudes Toward Blacks Scale | Current day-to-day other race contact (fairly voluntary) | .170 | ||
Brigham’s (1993) Attitudes Toward Blacks Scale | Current other-race friends | .180 | ||
Modern Racism (McConahay, Hardee, & Batts, 1981)—1 item (like Weigel & Howes, 1985) | Current day-to-day other race contact (fairly voluntary) | .040 | ||
Modern Racism (McConahay et al., 1981)—1 item (like Weigel & Howes, 1985) | Current other-race friends | .080 | ||
MRAI (Brigham, Woodmansee, & Cook, 1976) | Current day-to-day other race contact (fairly voluntary) | .180 | ||
MRAI (Brigham et al., 1976) | Current other-race friends | .220 | ||
Symbolic Racism (Kinder, 1981; minus 2 of five busing items; minus 2 items that “differed in format”) | Current day-to-day other race contact (fairly voluntary) | −.020 | ||
Symbolic Racism (Kinder, 1981; minus 2 of five busing items; minus 2 items that “differed in format”) | Current other-race friends | −.020 | ||
Burnstein & McRae | Holtzman desegregation scale (Kelly, Ferson, & Holtzman, 1958) | Choosing to replace Negro confederate | .320 | |
Holtzman desegregation scale (Kelly et al., 1958) | Evaluation of Negro confederate’s likeability | .204 | ||
Holtzman desegregation scale (Kelly et al., 1958) | Evaluation of Negro confederate’s contribution to task | .353 | ||
Holtzman desegregation scale (Kelly et al., 1958) | Percentage of communications sent to Negro confederate | .297 | ||
DeFleur & Westie | Summated difference scales | Photo authorization | .397 | |
DeFriese & Ford | Thurstone attitude | Signing public open housing or closed housing petition | .390 | |
Dijker | Surinamer anxiety mood and tendency | Surinamer contact | .340 | |
Surinamer concern mood and tendency | Surinamer contact | .400 | ||
Surinamer feeling thermometer | Surinamer contact | .420 | ||
Surinamer irritation mood and tendency | Surinamer contact | .390 | ||
Surinamer positive mood and tendency | Surinamer contact | .600 | ||
Turk anxiety mood and tendency | Turk/Moroccan contact | .270 | ||
Turk concern mood and tendency | Turk/Moroccan contact | .360 | ||
Turk irritation mood and tendency | Turk/Moroccan contact | .350 | ||
Turk positive mood and tendency | Turk/Moroccan contact | .630 | ||
Turk/Moroccan feeling thermometer | Turk/Moroccan contact | .300 | ||
Dovidio & Gaertner | Racial attitude items (Weigel & Howes, 1985) | Counseling candidate evaluation | .240 | |
Dovidio, Kawakami, & Gaertner | Brigham’s (1993) Attitudes Toward Blacks Scale | Non-verbal behavior friendliness | .020 | |
Brigham’s (1993) Attitudes Toward Blacks Scale | Self-reported friendliness | .330 | ||
Brigham’s (1993) Attitudes Toward Blacks Scale | Verbal behavior friendliness | .400 | ||
Brigham’s (1993) Attitudes Toward Blacks Scale | Confederate-reported friendliness | −.140 | ||
Brigham’s (1993) Attitudes Toward Blacks Scale | Overall observed friendliness | −.120 | ||
Implicit attitudes decision task | Overall observed friendliness | .430 | ||
Implicit attitudes decision task | Confederate-reported friendliness | .400 | ||
Implicit attitudes decision task | Self-reported friendliness | .050 | ||
Implicit attitudes decision task | Verbal behavior friendliness | .040 | ||
Implicit attitudes decision task | Non-verbal behavior friendliness | .410 | ||
Dovidio et al., study three | Modern Racism scale (McConahay, 1986) | Visual contact time in interview (Black vs. White) | −.200 | |
Modern Racism scale (McConahay, 1986) | Evaluations of interviewer (White vs. Black) | .540 | ||
Modern Racism scale (McConahay, 1986) | Self-evaluations of sincerity and likeableness in interviews (White vs. Black) | .370 | ||
Modern Racism scale (McConahay, 1986) | Blinking rate in interview (Black vs. White) | .070 | ||
Old-Fashioned Racism scale (McConahay, 1986) | Blinking rate in interview (Black vs. White) | −.040 | ||
Old-Fashioned Racism scale (McConahay, 1986) | Evaluations of interviewer (White vs. Black) | .370 | ||
Old-Fashioned Racism scale (McConahay, 1986) | Visual contact time in interview (Black vs. White) | −.020 | ||
Old-Fashioned Racism scale (McConahay, 1986) | Self-evaluations of sincerity and likeableness in interviews (White vs. Black) | .120 | ||
Response-latency bias | Evaluations of interviewer (White vs. Black) | .020 | ||
Response-latency bias | Blinking rate in interview (Black vs. White) | .430 | ||
Response-latency bias | Visual contact time in interview (Black vs. White) | .400 | ||
Response-latency bias | Self-evaluations of sincerity and likeableness in interviews (White vs. Black) | .070 | ||
Dovidio et al., study two | Modern Racism scale (McConahay, 1986) | Juridic judgment | .380 | |
Old-Fashioned Racism scale (McConahay, 1986) | Juridic judgment | .510 | ||
Response-latency bias | Juridic judgment | .020 | ||
Word-completion task (from Gilbert & Hixon, 1991) | Juridic judgment | −.150 | ||
Ewens & Ehrlich | Adjective checklist (affective, conative, cognitive) | Survey interviewing | .299 | |
Adjective checklist (affective, conative, cognitive) | Newspaper statement—civil rights activities | .144 | ||
Adjective checklist (affective, conative, cognitive) | Civil rights group—civil rights activities | .325 | ||
Adjective checklst (affective, conative, cognitive) | Civic talk—civil rights activities | .483 | ||
Adjective checklist (affective, conative, cognitive) | Protest march—civil rights activities | .324 | ||
Fendrich | 1967b | 32 item verbal attitudes | Commitment to interracial and civil rights behavior | .430 |
32 item verbal attitudes | NAACP group discussions and civil rights activities | .694 | ||
32 item verbal attitudes | Commitment to interracial and civil rights behavior | .676 | ||
32 item verbal attitudes | NAACP group discussions and civil rights activities | .081 | ||
Fendrich | 1967a | 32 item verbal attitudes | NAACP group discussions and civil rights activities | .476 |
Genthner & Taylor | Holtzman Desegregation Scale | Selected shock intensity for Black confed | .509 | |
Green | MRAI (Woodmansee & Cook, 1967) | Photo authorization | .394 | |
Harkins & Becker, study 2 | Prejudice self-rating | photo authorization | .060 | |
Hendricks | Discomfort level at closeness to Black confederate | Seating choice with Black confederate | .323 | |
Himelstein | Adaptation of Adorno’s Authoritarian personality scale | Petition signing, confed no sign | −.228 | |
Himelstein & Moore | Adaptation of Adorno’s Authoritarian personality scale | Petition signing, confed sign | .209 | |
Howitt & McCabe | Attitudes on Northern Ireland | Misdirected Irish letter returning | .599 | |
Islam & Hewstone | Intergroup anxiety (Stephan & Stephan, 1985) | Amount of contact | .230 | |
Overall attitude | Amount of contact | −.058 | ||
Perceived out-group variability | Amount of contact | .460 | ||
Jackman | Government Action (applied policy orientation toward Blacks) | Vote for Wallace (anti-civil-rights candidate) | .179 | |
Intention to vote for Wallace | Vote for Wallace (anti-civil-rights candidate) | .506 | ||
Segregationism (genereralized policy orientation) | Vote for Wallace (anti-civil-rights candidate) | .196 | ||
Temperature toward Blacks | Vote for Wallace (anti-civil-rights candidate) | .129 | ||
Temperature towards Wallace | Vote for Wallace (anti-civil-rights candidate) | .251 | ||
Kamenetzky, Burgess, & Rowan | Agreement with employment discrimination statements (Likert version) | Fair employment petition | .610 | |
Responses to anti-Black cartoons | Fair employment petition | .540 | ||
Katz | Causes of minority people’s problems | Compliance with Negro student doing “consumer attitude” survey (phone) | −.366 | |
Kelly, Ferson, & Holtzman | Holtzman Desegregation scale | Been the guest of a Negro in his house | .210 | |
Holtzman Desegregation scale | Belonged to social club or attended social gathering | .340 | ||
Holtzman Desegregation scale | Played together as small children | .330 | ||
Holtzman Desegregation scale | Played together as small children | .300 | ||
Holtzman Desegregation scale | Played together as small children | .170 | ||
Linn | I wouldn’t mind social distance scale | Photo authorization | .288 | |
Willingness to be in interracial opposite-sex photo with varying publicity levels | Photo authorization | .389 | ||
Mabe & Williams | PRAM II (Williams, Best, & Boswell, 1975) | Who would you like to sit by/work with/play with sociometry | .550 | |
Malof & Lott | E Scale Negro | Asch minority influence | .420 | |
Masson & Verkuyten | Prejudicial attitudes in general (DeJong & Van Der Toorn, 1984) | Rate of weekly contact | .330 | |
McConahay | Modern Racism (McConahay et al., 1981)—1 item (like Weigel & Howes, 1985) | Hiring role-play: “Would you hire this person?” | .500 | |
McConnell | Racially associated name IAT (Whites–Blacks) | Experimenters’ ratings of 4-question interview—eye contact, abruptness/curtness, friendliness, and general comfort level | .390 | |
McConnell & Leibold | Racially associated name IAT (Whites–Blacks) | Trained judges’ ratings—abruptness/curtness, friendliness, and general comfort level | .340 | |
Semantic differential and feeling thermometer (Whites–Blacks) | Trained judges’ ratings—abruptness/curtness, friendliness, and general comfort level | .260 | ||
Semantic differential and feeling thermometer (Whites–Blacks) | Experimenters’ ratings of 4-question interview—eye contact, abruptness/curtness, friendliness, and general comfort level | .330 | ||
Montgomery & Enzie | Steckler’s attitudes toward Negroes scale and rev. E scale | Autokinetic influence by Black confederate | .066 | |
Plant & Devine, study two | Angry/threatened affect at boss’ suggestion | Hiring candidate after pro-Black pressure removed | .390 | |
IMS × EMS | Hiring candidate after pro-Black pressure removed | .477 | ||
Raden | F Scale (5-items; Srole, 1956) | Selected shock intensity for White or Black confed | .242 | |
Saenger & Gilbert | Attitudes toward Negro salespersons; interview prejudice rating | Race of store clerk approached | .047 | |
Attitudes toward Negro salespersons; question | Race of store clerk approached | .005 | ||
Sappington | Civil rights liberal or conservative | Non-immediacy of hypothetical remarks to videotaped discussion participants | .496 | |
Civil rights liberal or conservative | Consultant preference (hypothetical) | .394 | ||
Civil rights liberal or conservative | Proportion responses to Black man in hypothetical remarks to videotaped discussion participants | .440 | ||
Silverman & Cochrane | Open housing behavioral intention | Open housing petition | .380 | |
Open housing petition behavioral intention | Open housing petition | .630 | ||
Smith & Dixon | E Scale Negro | Verbal conditioning to Black expt’r | .000 | |
Vorauer | Manitoba Prejudice scale (Altemeyer, 1988) | Affective reaction of interaction partner | .530 | |
Wagner, Hewstone, & Machleit | How likeable item | Contact during school break | .120 | |
How likeable item | Friends from the outgroup | .270 | ||
How likeable item | Contact during leisure time | .480 | ||
How likeable item | Visits at the house (number) | .240 | ||
How likeable item | Informal talks (number) | .010 | ||
Warner & DeFleur | Verbal attitude | Public signing or refusal to social-distance maintaining act | .262 | |
Verbal attitude | Private signing or refusal to social-distance reducing act | .002 | ||
Verbal attitude | Public signing or refusal to social-distance reducing act | .124 | ||
Verbal attitude | Private signing or refusal to social-distance maintaining act | .103 | ||
Weatherley | Levinson Anti-Semitism Scale | Fantasy aggression toward Jewish-named characters in story | .396 | |
Weitz | How friendly will you feel toward imaginary Black “subject” in 1 year | Seating distance | −.362 |
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Talaska, C.A., Fiske, S.T. & Chaiken, S. Legitimating Racial Discrimination: Emotions, Not Beliefs, Best Predict Discrimination in a Meta-Analysis. Soc Just Res 21, 263–296 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-008-0071-2
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-008-0071-2