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Lifelong guidance: How guidance and counselling support lifelong learning in the contrasting contexts of China and Denmark

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Abstract

Due to the effects of globalisation and rapid technological development, traditional linear life course patterns of the past are gradually disappearing, and this affects education and learning systems as well as labour markets. Individuals are forced to develop lifestyles and survival strategies to manage job insecurity and make their skills and interests meet labour market needs. In modern attempts to develop and implement institutional provision for lifelong learning, guidance and counselling play an important role. The current Danish guidance system is well-organised, highly structured and professionalised. By contrast, Chinese guidance is still fragmented and “sectorisational”. This paper explores whether elements of the highly structured and professionalised Danish guidance system and practice might be applicable to the Chinese context. The author begins by outlining international and national factors which are affecting citizens’ life and career planning. She then presents and discusses the evolution of guidance and the different elements of provision in each of the two countries. Next, She compares the concepts and goals of “lifelong guidance” in Denmark and China, pointing out their similarities and differences and their respective strengths and weaknesses. The paper concludes with some suggestions for the further development of guidance in China.

Résumé

Orientation tout au long de la vie : comment les services d’orientation et de conseil soutiennent l’apprentissage tout au long de la vie dans les contextes contrastrés de la Chine et du Danemark – Par suite de la mondialisation et du développement technologique accéléré, les modèles traditionnels des parcours de vie linéaires qui étaient valables par le passé disparaissent progressivement, ce qui affecte les systèmes d’éducation et d’apprentissage tout autant que les marchés du travail. Les individus doivent adopter des modes de vie et des stratégies de survie qui leur permettent de gérer l’insécurité professionnelle et de faire correspondre leurs compétences et préférences aux besoins du marché du travail. Dans les tentatives modernes de concevoir et de réaliser des prestations institutionnelles d’apprentissage tout au long de la vie, les services d’orientation et de conseil jouent un rôle important. Le système actuel d’orientation au Danemark est bien organisé, très structuré et professionnel. En revanche, l’orientation en Chine est encore fragmentée et « sectorisée ». L’auteure explore dans quelle mesure des éléments du système d’orientation danois hautement structuré et professionnalisé ainsi que sa transposition seraient applicables au contexte chinois. Elle aborde en premier lieu les facteurs internationaux et nationaux qui affectent les plans de carrière et de vie des citoyens. Elle présente et analyse ensuite l’évolution des services d’orientation et les divers éléments de la prestation dans les deux pays. Enfin, elle compare les concepts et objectifs de « l’orientation tout au long de la vie » au Danemark et en Chine, signalant leurs similitudes et leurs différences ainsi que leurs forces et faiblesses respectives. Elle conclut par plusieurs suggestions pour l’évolution ultérieure des services d’orientation en Chine.

摘要

终身指导:指导和咨询如何支持终身学习的中丹比较– 由于全球化和技术迅速发展的影响, 过去传统的线性生命历程模式正在逐渐消失, 这对教育、学习体系和劳动力市场都产生了影响。个人被迫发展新的生活方式和生存策略来应对工作的不安全感, 并使个人技能和兴趣满足劳动力市场的需求。在现代终身学习的发展和实施中, 指导和咨询发挥着重要作用。丹麦的终身指导已具有高度的组织性、结构化和专业化。相比之下, 中国的终身指导还未形成一定的体系。本文探讨了高度结构化和专业化的丹麦指导体系和实践是否可适用于中国。文章首先概述了影响人们生活和职业生涯规划的国际、国内因素。然后论述两国终身指导的发展演变和当前的指导服务情况。接下来, 比较了中丹两国终身指导理念和目标的异同, 并指出了他们之间的优劣。最后, 为终身指导在中国的进一步发展提出了一些建议。

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Notes

  1. I am referring to “Making waves: Career development and public policy” (held in Ottawa in 1999) and “Making waves: Connecting career development and public policy” (held in Vancouver in 2001). For more information, see Hiebert and Bezanson (2000) and Bezanson and O’Reilly (2002).

  2. The European Lifelong Guidance Policy Network (ELGPN) was established with the aim of assisting European Union Member States and the European Commission “in moving European cooperation on lifelong guidance forward in both the education and the employment sectors” (http://www.eqavet.eu/gns/policy-context/european-vet-initiatives/european-lifelong-guidance-policy-network.aspx [accessed 22 July 2016]).

  3. “The OECD Development Centre is a platform to bring together countries at different levels of development to discuss policies that stimulate growth and improve living conditions” (http://www.oecd.org/newsroom/china-signs-cooperation-agreements-with-oecd-and-joins-oecd-development-centre.htm [accessed 25 July 2016]).

  4. I am referring to the“China International Forum of Career Planning and GCDF [Global Career Development Facilitators] Global Summit”.

  5. As Per Kongshøj Madsen points out, skills mismatch is a considerable factor which particularly affects youth unemployment in Denmark (Madsen 2015).

  6. Children in Denmark may attend preschool, but compulsory education starts in primary school at age 6 and ends in lower secondary school at age 16. Some pupils then go on to vocational schools, while others continue in upper secondary school for another three years, becoming eligible to apply for university study.

  7. These steps are a continuation of the Chinese Economic Reform and Opening policy initiated by Deng Xiaoping in 1978.

  8. Children in China start primary school (grades 1–6) at age six, move on to junior middle school (grades 7–9) at age 12, finishing compulsory schooling when they are about 15 years old. After that, there is middle (senior high) or vocational school (grades 10–12), which is completed by pupils who are on average 18 years old. After graduating from senior high school, students who want to enter university must pass the National College Entrance Examination.

  9. Psychometric testing is a method used in selecting students or job applicants for acceptance into a course, an apprenticeship or a job. The purpose is to assess participants’ reasoning abilities by setting tasks involving numbers, language, diagrams and situations which require judgements and decisions.

  10. “Two-way choice, rational flow” refers to the employers interviewing the graduates directly. Graduates’ schools can issue a recommendation (letter). After the a successful interview, the graduate and the employer sign the employment agreement. The employment plan is formed with the approval of the local department in charge of the employment and the graduate’s school. Both employers and employees are free to choose to terminate the contract (two-way choice). If it is the employee who is not satisfied with the enterprise, he or she can submit an application for leave, and cancel the contract with the enterprise, which means that employers and employees are equal in the process of filling or finding a position.

  11. From 1985 to 1998, the Ministry of Education (MoE) of the People’s Republic of China was called the State Education Commission (SEC).

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Acknowledgments

Funding was provided by the Chinese Ministry of Education, Project of Humanities and Social Sciences on Young Fund (Project No. 15YJC880025).

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Correspondence to Zhixin Zhang.

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Zhang, Z. Lifelong guidance: How guidance and counselling support lifelong learning in the contrasting contexts of China and Denmark. Int Rev Educ 62, 627–645 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-016-9594-1

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