Abstract
The optimal root system architecture for increased tree anchorage has not yet been determined and in particular, the role of the tap root remains elusive. In Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.), tap roots may play an important role in anchoring young trees, but in adult trees, their growth is often impeded by the presence of a hard pan layer in the soil and the tap root becomes a minor component of tree anchorage. To understand better the role of the tap root in young trees, we grew cuttings (no tap root present) and seedlings where the tap root had (−) or had not (+) been pruned, in the field for 7 years. The force (F) necessary to deflect the stem sideways was then measured and divided by stem cross-sectional area (CSA), giving a parameter analogous to stress during bending. Root systems were extracted and root architecture and wood mechanical properties (density and longitudinal modulus of elasticity, E L ) determined. In seedlings (−) tap roots, new roots had regenerated where the tap root had been pruned, whereas in cuttings, one or two lateral roots had grown downwards and acted as tap roots. Cuttings had significantly less lateral roots than the other treatments, but those near the soil surface were 14% and 23% thicker than plants (+) and (−) tap roots, respectively. Cuttings were smaller than seedlings, but were not relatively less resistant to stem deflection, probably because the thicker lateral roots compensated for their lower number. Apart from stem volume which was greater in trees (+) tap roots, no significant differences with regard to size or any root system variable were found in plants (−) or (+) tap roots. In all treatments, lateral roots were structurally reinforced through extra growth along the direction of the prevailing wind, which also improved tap root anchorage. Predictors of log F/CSA differed depending on treatment: in trees (−) tap roots, a combination of the predictors stem taper and %volume allocated to deep roots was highly regressed with log F/CSA (R 2 = 0.83), unlike plants (+) tap roots where the combined predictors of lateral root number and root depth were best regressed with log F/CSA (R 2 = 0.80). In cuttings, no clear relationships between log F/CSA and any parameter could be found. Wood density and E L did not differ between roots, but did diminish with increasing distance from the stem in lateral roots. E L was significantly lower in lateral roots from cuttings. Results showed that nursery techniques influence plant development but that the architectural pattern of Maritime pine root systems is stable, developing a sinker root system even when grown from cuttings. Anchorage is affected but the consequences for the long-term are still not known. Numerical modelling may be the only viable method to investigate the function that each root plays in adult tree anchorage.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Freely available for Linux and Windows platforms: www.cirad.fr and ftp.cirad.fr/pub/amap/AMAPmod—AMAPmod and R functions for computation of the root characteristics described here are available from F. Danjon.
References
Auberlinder V (1982) De l’instabilité du Pin maritime. Ann Rech Sylvicol AFOCEL, 139–176
Bailey PHJ, Currey JD, Fitter AH (2002) The role of root system architecture and root hairs in promoting anchorage against uprooting forces in Allium cepa and root mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana. J Exp Bot 53:333–340
Balneaves JM, De La Mare PJ (1989) Root patterns of Pinus radiata on five ripping treatments in a Canterbury forest. N Z J For Sci 19:29–40
Batschelet E (1981) Circular statistics in biology. Academic Press, London, p 371
Berthier S, Stokes A (2006) Righting response of artificially inclined Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.) saplings to wind loading. Tree Physiol 26:73–79
Burdett AN, Coates H, Eremko R, Martin PAF (1986) Toppling in British Columbia’s lodgepole pine plantations: significance, cause and prevention. Forestry Chron 62:433–439
Burschel P, Stimm B (1993) Der Wurzelschnitt. Forst und Holz 48:S520–S524
Chaperon H, Hinschberger F, Haury P, Alazard P (1991) Etude comparative du développement de plants de pin maritime issus de boutures et de semis. Ann Rech Sylvicol AFOCEL, 15–34
Coutts MP (1986) Components of tree stability in Sitka spruce on peaty gley soil. Forestry 59:173–197
Coutts MP, Grace J (eds) (1995) Wind and trees. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 485 pp
Coutts MP, Lewis GJ (1983) When is the structural root system determined in Sitka spruce? Plant Soil 71:155–160
Coutts MP, Nielsen CCN, Nicoll BC (1999) The development of symmetry, rigidity and anchorage in the structural root system of conifers. Plant Soil 217:1–15
Crook MJ, Ennos AR (1997) The increase in anchorage with tree size of the tropical tap rooted tree Mallotus wrayi, King (Euphorbiaceae). In: Jeronimidis G, Vincent JFV (eds) Plant biomechanics. Centre for Biomimetics, Reading, pp 31–36
Cucchi V, Bert D (2003) Wind-firmness in Pinus pinaster Ait. stands in Southwest France: influence of stand density, fertilisation and breeding in two experimental stands damaged during the 1999 storm. Ann For Sci 60:209–226
Cucchi V, Meredieu C, Stokes A, Berthier S, Bert D, Najar M (2004). Root anchorage of inner and edge trees of Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait) growing in different soil podzolic conditions. Trees – Struct Func 18:460–466
Cucchi V, Meredieu C, Stokes A, de Coligny F, Suarez J, Gardiner B (2005) Modelling the windthrow risk for simulated stands of Maritime pine. For Ecol Manage 213:184–196
Danjon F (1994) Heritabilities and genetic correlations for estimated growth curves parameters in maritime pine. Theor Appl Genet 89:911–921
Danjon F, Bert D, Godin C, Trichet P (1999a) Structural root architecture of 5-year-old Pinus pinaster measured by 3D digitising and analysed with AMAPmod. Plant Soil 217:49–63
Danjon F, Sinoquet H, Godin C, Colin F, Drexhage M (1999b) Characterisation of structural tree root architecture using 3D digitising and AMAPmod software. Plant Soil 211:241–258
Danjon F, Fourcaud T, Bert D (2005) Root architecture and wind-firmness of mature Pinus pinaster. New Phytol 168:387–400
Dupuy L, Fourcaud T, Stokes A (2005a) A numerical investigation into factors affecting the anchorage of roots in tension. Eur J Soil Sci 56:319–327
Dupuy L, Fourcaud T, Stokes A (2005b) A numerical investigation into the influence of soil type and root architecture on tree anchorage. Plant Soil 278:119–134
Ennos AR (1990) The anchorage of leek seedlings: the effect of root length and soil strength. Ann Bot - London 65:409–416
Ennos AR (1994) The biomechanics of root anchorage. Biomimetics 2:129–137
Fourcaud T, Blaise F, Lac P, Castera P, de Reffye P (2003) Numerical modelling of shape regulation and growth stresses in trees II. Implementation in the AMAPpara software and simulation of tree growth. Trees – Struct Funct 17:31–39
Gaspar MJ, Borralho N, Lopes Gomes A (2005) Comparison between field performance of cuttings and seedlings of Eucalyptus globulus. Ann For Sci 62:837–841
Gardiner BA, Quine C (2000). Management of forests to reduce the risk of wind damage – a review with particular reference to the effects of strong winds. For Ecol Manage 135:261–277
Gardiner BA, Peltola H, Kellomaki S (2000) Comparison of two models for predicting the critical wind speeds required to damage coniferous trees. Ecol Model 129:1–23
Girouard RM (1995) Root form and stability of outplanted trees: results of a 1989 survey. Arboric J 19:121–146
Godin C, Guédon Y (1999) AMAPmod v1.8. Introduction and reference manual. CIRAD, Montpellier, France
Godin C, Guédon Y, Costes E (1999) Exploration of plant architecture databases with the AMAPmod software illustrated on an apple-tree family. Agronomie 19:163–184
Goodman AM, Ennos AR (1999) The effects of soil bulk density on the morphology and anchorage mechanics of the root systems of sunflower and maize. Ann Bot – London 83:293–302
Guitard D (1987) Mécanique du Bois et Composites. Editions Cepadues, Toulouse
Harrington TB, Howell KD (1998) Planting cost, survival, and growth one to three years after establishing loblolly pine seedlings with straight, deformed, or pruned taproots. New Forests 15:193–204
Hintikka V (1972) Wind-induced movements in forest trees. Comm Inst For Fenn 76:1–56
Hobbs SD, Stafford SG, Slagle RL (1987) Undercutting conifer seedlings: effect on morphology and field performance on droughty sites. Can J For Res 17:40–46
Jinks RL, Kerr G (1999) Establishment and early growth of different plant types of Corsican pine (Pinus nigra var. maritima) on four sites in Thetford Forest. Forestry 72:293–304
Krasowski MJ, Owens JN (2000) Morphological and physiological attributes of root systems and seedling growth in three different Picea glauca reforestation stock. Can J For Res 30:1669–1681
Krasowski MJ, Hawkins CDB, Coates H, Ott PK (1996) Static tests of lodgepole pine stability in the central interior of British Columbia. Can J For Res 26:1463–1472
Lindström A, Rune G (1999) Root deformation in containerised Scots pine plantations – effects on stability and stem straightness. Plant Soil 217:29–37
Maugé JP (1987) Le Pin maritime : premier résineux de France. Editions IDF, Paris
Mickovski SB, Ennos AR (2002) A morphological and mechanical study of the root systems of suppressed crown Scots pine Pinus sylvestris. Trees – Struct Func 16:274–280
Mickovski SB, Ennos AR (2003) Anchorage and asymmetry in the root system of Pinus peuce. Silva Fenn 37:161–173
Mickovski SB, Stokes A, van Beek LPH (2005) A decision support tool for windthrow hazard assessment and prevention. For Ecol Manage 216:64–76
Moore JR (2000) Differences in maximum resistive bending moments of Pinus radiata trees grown on a range of soil types. For Ecol Manage 135:63–71
Nicoll BC, Ray D (1996) Adaptive growth of tree root systems in response to wind action and site conditions. Tree Physiol 16:891–898
Nicoll BC, Achim A, Mochan S, Gardiner BA (2005) Does steep terrain influence tree stability? A field investigation. Can J For Res 35:2360–2367
Nicoll BC, Gardiner BA, Rayner B, Pearce AJ (2006) Anchorage of coniferous trees in relation to species, soil type, and rooting depth. Can J For Res 36:1871–1883
Nörr R (2003) Planting – a risk for the stability of forest stands? In: Ruck B, Kottmeier C, Mattheck C, Quine C, Wilhelm G (eds) International conference wind effects on trees, September 16–18, 2003. University of Karlsruhe, Germany, pp 281–288
Rizzo DM, Gross R (2000) Distribution of Armillaria on pear root systems and a comparison of root excavation techniques. In: Stokes A (ed) The supporting roots of trees and woody plants: form, function and physiology. Developments in plant and soil sciences, vol 87. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp 305–311
Ruck B, Kottmeier C, Mattheck C, Quine C, Wilhelm G (eds) (2003) International conference wind effects on trees, September 16–18, 2003. University of Karlsruhe, Germany, p 375
Sasse J, Sands R (1997) Configuration and development of root systems of cuttings and seedlings of Eucalyptus globulus. New Forests 14:85–105
Schultz RC, Thompson JR (1997) effect of density control and undercutting on root morphology of 1plus0 bareroot hardwood seedlings: five-year field performance of root-graded stock in the central USA. New Forests 13:301–314
Sinoquet H, Rivet P, Godin C (1997) Assessment of the three-dimensional architecture of walnut trees using digitizing. Silva Fenn 3:265–273
South DB, Shelton J, Enebak SA (2001) Geotropic lateral roots of container-grown longleaf pine seedlings. Native Plants J 2:126–130
Stokes A (1999) Strain distribution during anchorage failure in root systems of Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.) at different ages and tree growth response to wind-induced root movement. Plant Soil 217:17–27
Stokes A, Berthier S (2000) Irregular heartwood formation in Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.) is linked to eccentric, radial stem growth. For Ecol Manage 135:115–121
Stokes A, Guitard D (1997) Tree root response to mechanical stress. In: Altman A, Waisel Y (eds) The biology of root formation and development. Plenum Publishing, New York, pp 227–236
Stokes A, Fitter AH, Coutts MP (1995) Responses of young trees to wind: effects on root architecture and anchorage strength. J Exp Bot 46:1139–1146
Stokes A, Berthier S, Sacriste S, Martin F (1998) Variations in maturation strains and root shape in root systems of Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.). Trees – Struct Func 12:334–339
Stokes A, Lucas A, Jouneau L (2007) Plant biomechanical strategies in response to frequent disturbance: uprooting of bamboo growing on landslide prone slopes in Sichuan, China. Am J Bot (In press)
Tamasi E, Stokes A, Lasserre B, Danjon F, Berthier S, Fourcaud T, Chiatante D (2005) Influence of wind stress on root system development and architecture in oak seedlings (Quercus robur L.). Trees – Struct Func 19:374–384
Telewski FW (1995) Wind-induced physiological and developmental responses in trees. In: Coutts MP, Grace J (eds) Wind and trees. Cambridge University Press, pp 237–263
Watson AJ, Tombleson JD (2002) Toppling in juvenile pines: a comparison of the root system characteristics of direct-sown seedlings, and bare-root seedlings and cuttings. Plant Soil 239:187–196
Watson AJ, Tombleson JD (2004) Toppling in juvenile pines: temporal changes in root system characteristics of bare-root seedlings and cuttings. N Z J For Sci 34:39–48
Acknowledgments
Thanks are due to F. Bernier, B. Montousset, L. Séverin, M. Guedon and E. Borg for help with extraction of the root systems. S. Berthier and H. Huynh aided with measurements of root system characteristics and T. Fourcaud provided useful advice throughout the study. H. Khuder was funded by a postgraduate bursary from the Syrian government. K. Gouskou was funded by the E.U. project Eco-slopes (QLK5-2001-00289).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
An erratum to this article can be found at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11104-007-9282-9
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Khuder, H., Stokes, A., Danjon, F. et al. Is it possible to manipulate root anchorage in young trees?. Plant Soil 294, 87–102 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-007-9232-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-007-9232-6