Abstract
In this article, polythiophene (PTh) and a sequence of PTh/(1, 5, 10 wt.%) ZnO composites were prepared by in situ chemical oxidative polymerization method. The successful formation of PTh, ZnO, and interaction between PTh and ZnO were confirmed by various techniques such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), differential scanning calorimetry, UV–vis spectroscopy, fluorescence studies, followed by DC electrical conductivity. The XRD spectra showed crystallinity modification for PTh with ZnO wt.%, demonstrating the crystal structure of the sulfur modification. The SEM micrographs showed the existence of randomly linked ZnO nanoparticles, confirming the interaction of ZnO nanoparticles with the polymer matrix. A good agreement was observed in comparison to spectral studies. From the Tauc plot, it was found that the pure PTh bandgap was 2.0 eV and eventually decreased on decreasing the (wt.%) of doping. PTh/10(wt.%) ZnO showed enhanced conductivity (i.e., 0.00982 S cm−1) compared to pure PTh (0.000472 Scm−1). At room temperature (30 °C), the sensing performance was evaluated in terms of percent sensing and response/recovery time. It was noticed that the prepared composites were suitable for acetone sensing. Pure PTh showed 48.40% sensitivity, and sensitivity response for PTh/1(wt.%) ZnO, PTh/5(wt.%) ZnO, and PTh/10(wt.%) ZnO was 55.35%, 58.08%, and 75.11%, respectively. Sensitivity of the PTh/10(wt.%) ZnO composites–based sensors increased more than that of PTh. PTh/10(wt.%) ZnO showed a 122 s response time compared to another fabricated sensor. In reversibility test for PTh/10(wt.%) ZnO, an oscillating trend in sensitivity for four cycles was observed. The sensor’s operating stability was checked over a 16-day period and a fluctuating trend was observed in percentage sensitivity, reversibility, and response/recovery time.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
McCullough RD (1998) The Chemistry of Conducting Polythiophenes: from Synthesis to Self-Assembly to Intelligent Materials. Handb. Oligo‐ Polythiophenes 1–44
Okamoto K, Luscombe CK (2011) Controlled polymerizations for the synthesis of semiconducting conjugated polymers. Polym Chem 2:2424–2434. https://doi.org/10.1039/c1py00171j
Choudhary RB, Ansari S, Purty B (2020) Robust electrochemical performance of polypyrrole (PPy) and polyindole (PIn) based hybrid electrode materials for supercapacitor application: A review. J Energy Storage 29:101302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2020.101302
Reddy KR, Hemavathi B, Balakrishna GR et al (2019) Organic conjugated polymer-based functional nanohybrids: synthesis methods, mechanisms and its applications in electrochemical energy storage supercapacitors and solar cells. In: Polymer Composites With Functionalized Nanoparticles. Elsevier 357–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814064-2.00011-1
Swathy TS, Jinish Antony M (2020) Tangled silver nanoparticles embedded polythiophene-functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotube nanocomposites with remarkable electrical and thermal properties. Polymer (Guildf) 189:122171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2020.122171
Iqbal S, Shah J, Kotnala RK, Ahmad S (2019) Highly efficient low cost EMI shielding by barium ferrite encapsulated polythiophene nanocomposite. J Alloys Compd 779:487–496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2018.11.307
Liu R, Liu Z (2009) Polythiophene: Synthesis in aqueous medium and controllable morphology. Chinese Sci Bull 54:2028–2032. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11434-009-0217-0
Diaz AF, Crowley J, Bargon J et al (1981) Electrooxidation of aromatic oligomers and conducting polymers. J Electroanal Chem 121:355–361. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-0728(81)80592-X
Sugimoto R, ichi, Takeda S, Gu HB, Yoshino K, (1986) Preparation of Soluble Polythiophene Derivatives Utilizing Transition Metal Halides As Catalysts and Their Property. Chem Express 1:635–638
Reddy KR, Reddy CV, Babu B et al (2019) Recent advances in layered clays–intercalated polymer nanohybrids: synthesis strategies, properties, and their applications. Modif Clay Zeolite Nanocompos Mater 197–218
Faisal M, Harraz FA, Jalalah M et al (2020) Polythiophene doped ZnO nanostructures synthesized by modified sol-gel and oxidative polymerization for efficient photodegradation of methylene blue and gemifloxacin antibiotic. Mater Today Commun 24:101048. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2020.101048
Bayram O (2018) Conjugated polythiophene/Ni doped ZnO hetero bilayer nanocomposite thin films: Its structural, optical and photoluminescence properties. Ceram Int 44:20635–20640. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2018.08.055
Djuriić AB, Ng AMC, Chen XY (2010) ZnO nanostructures for optoelectronics: Material properties and device applications. Prog Quantum Electron 34:191–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pquantelec.2010.04.001
Pourrahimi AM, Liu D, Pallon LKH et al (2014) Water-based synthesis and cleaning methods for high purity ZnO nanoparticles-comparing acetate, chloride, sulphate and nitrate zinc salt precursors. RSC Adv 4:35568–35577. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4ra06651k
Husain A, Ahmad S, Mohammad F (2019) Thermally stable and highly sensitive ethene gas sensor based on polythiophene/zirconium oxide nanocomposites. Mater Today Commun 20:100574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2019.100574
Reddy KR, Karthik KV, Prasad SBB et al (2016) Enhanced photocatalytic activity of nanostructured titanium dioxide/polyaniline hybrid photocatalysts. Polyhedron 120:169–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.poly.2016.08.029
He K, Jin Z, Chu X et al (2019) Fast response–recovery time toward acetone by a sensor prepared with Pd doped WO 3 nanosheets. RSC Adv 9:28439–28450. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9RA04429A
Husain A, Ahmad S, Mohammad F (2020) Electrical conductivity and alcohol sensing studies on polythiophene/tin oxide nanocomposites. J Sci Adv Mater Devices 5:84–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsamd.2020.01.002
Chaudhary A, Pathak DK, Tanwar M et al (2019) Polythiophene–PCBM-Based All-Organic Electrochromic Device: Fast and Flexible. ACS Appl Electron Mater 1:58–63. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaelm.8b00012
Paul S, Balasubramanian K (2021) Charge transfer induced excitons and nonlinear optical properties of ZnO/PEDOT:PSS nanocomposite films. Spectrochim Acta Part A Mol Biomol Spectrosc 245:118901. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2020.118901
Zhu Y, Xu S, Jiang L et al (2008) Synthesis and characterization of polythiophene/titanium dioxide composites. React Funct Polym 68:1492–1498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2008.07.008
Roncali J (2007) Molecular Engineering of the Band Gap of π-Conjugated Systems: Facing Technological Applications. Macromol Rapid Commun 28:1761–1775. https://doi.org/10.1002/marc.200700345
Harraz FA, Faisal M, Jalalah M et al (2020) Conducting polythiophene/α-Fe2O3 nanocomposite for efficient methanol electrochemical sensor. Appl Surf Sci 508:145226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2019.145226
H V SPA, Yesappa L et al (2020) Camphor sulfonic acid surfactant assisted polythiophene nanocomposite for efficient electrochemical hydrazine sensor. Mater Res Express 6:125375. https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/ab5ef5
Dakshayini BS, Reddy KR, Mishra A et al (2019) Role of conducting polymer and metal oxide-based hybrids for applications in ampereometric sensors and biosensors. Microchem J 147:7–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2019.02.061
Lai CYK, Foot PJS, Brown JW, Spearman P (2017) A urea potentiometric biosensor based on a thiophene copolymer. Biosensors 7:13. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios7010013
Husain A, Ahmad S, Ansari SP et al (2021) DC electrical conductivity retention and acetone/acetaldehyde sensing on polythiophene/molybdenum disulphide composites. Polym Polym Compos1–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/09673911211002781
Husain A, Shariq MU, Mohammad F (2020) DC electrical conductivity and liquefied petroleum gas sensing application of polythiophene/zinc oxide nanocomposite. Materialia 9:100599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtla.2020.100599
Husain A, Ahmad S, Mohammad F (2020) Polythiophene/graphene/zinc tungstate nanocomposite: Synthesis, characterization, DC electrical conductivity and cigarette smoke sensing application. Polym Polym Compos 1–12https://doi.org/10.1177/0967391120929079
Thangamani GJ, Deshmukh K, Nambiraj NA, Pasha SKK (2021) Chemiresistive gas sensors based on vanadium pentoxide reinforced polyvinyl alcohol/polypyrrole blend nanocomposites for room temperature LPG sensing. Synth Met 273:116687. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.synthmet.2020.116687
Chouhan S, Bhatt R, Bajpai AK et al (2015) Investigation of UV absorption and antibacterial behavior of zinc oxide containing poly(vinyl alcohol-g-acrylonitrile) (PVA-g-PAN) nanocomposites films. Fibers Polym 16:1243–1254. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12221-015-1243-y
Kulandaivelu P, Sakthipandi K, Senthil Kumar P, Rajendran V (2013) Mechanical properties of bulk and nanostructured La0.61Sr0.39MnO3 perovskite manganite materials. J Phys Chem Solids 74:205–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpcs.2012.09.008
Ben AR, Ajili M, Garcia JM et al (2020) First principal investigation of structural, morphological, optoelectronic and magnetic characteristics of sprayed Zn: Fe2O3 thin films. Optik (Stuttg) 219:165303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijleo.2020.165303
Dutta S, Chattopadhyay S, Sarkar A et al (2009) Role of defects in tailoring structural, electrical and optical properties of ZnO. Prog Mater Sci 54:89–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2008.07.002
Benhaddou N, Aazou S, Sánchez Y et al (2020) Investigation on limiting factors affecting Cu2ZnGeSe4 efficiency: Effect of annealing conditions and surface treatment. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells 216:110701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2020.110701
Wen-Cheun AuB, Tamang A, Knipp D, Chan K-Y (2020) Post-annealing effect on the electrochromic properties of WO3 films. Opt Mater (Amst) 108:110426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optmat.2020.110426
Reddy KR, Jeong HM, Lee Y, Raghu AV (2010) Synthesis of MWCNTs-core/thiophene polymer-sheath composite nanocables by a cationic surfactant-assisted chemical oxidative polymerization and their structural properties. J Polym Sci Part A Polym Chem 48:1477–1484. https://doi.org/10.1002/pola.23883
Wu F, Chen J, Chen R et al (2011) Sulfur/polythiophene with a core/shell structure: Synthesis and electrochemical properties of the cathode for rechargeable lithium batteries. J Phys Chem C 115:6057–6063. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp1114724
Tripathi A, Mishra SK, Bahadur I, Shukla RK (2015) Optical properties of regiorandom polythiophene/Al2O3 nanocomposites and their application to ammonia gas sensing. J Mater Sci Mater Electron 26:7421–7430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-015-3373-9
Khatamian M, Fazayeli M, Divband B (2014) Preparation, characterization and photocatalytic properties of polythiophene-sensitized zinc oxide hybrid nanocomposites. Mater Sci Semicond Process 26:540–547. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mssp.2014.04.038
Zia J, Aazam ES, Riaz U (2020) Highly efficient visible light driven photocatalytic activity of MnO2 and Polythiophene/MnO2 nanohybrids against mixed organic pollutants. J Mol Struct 1207:127790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2020.127790
Raghu AV, Jeong HM (2008) Synthesis, characterization of novel dihydrazide containing polyurethanes based on N1, N2-bis [(4-hydroxyphenyl) methylene] ethanedihydrazide and various diisocyanates. J Appl Polym Sci 107:3401–3407. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.27447
Wang L, Muhammed M (1999) Synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles with controlled morphology. J Mater Chem 9:2871–2878. https://doi.org/10.1039/a907098b
Mazdi NZM, Nordin NA, Rahman NA (2017) Synthesis and Characterisation Of Highly Fluorescent Polythiophene Based Composite Nanofibers. Macromol Symp 371:129–139. https://doi.org/10.1002/masy.201600054
Coates J (2006) Interpretation of Infrared Spectra, A Practical Approach. Encycl. Anal. Chem. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470027318.a5606
Talari ACS, Martinez MAG, Movasaghi Z et al (2017) Advances in Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy of biological tissues. Appl Spectrosc Rev 52:456–506. https://doi.org/10.1080/05704928.2016.1230863
Loh YK, Aldridge S (2020) Acid-Base Free Main Group Carbonyl Analogues. Angew Chemie Int Ed 60:8626–8648. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202008174
Huang YH, Gladysz JA (1988) Aldehyde and ketone ligands in organometallic complexes and catalysis. J Chem Educ 65:298. https://doi.org/10.1021/ed065p298
Ansari MO, Khan MM, Ansari SA, Cho MH (2015) Polythiophene nanocomposites for photodegradation applications: Past, present and future. J Saudi Chem Soc 19:494–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jscs.2015.06.004
Cugola R, Giovanella U, Di Gianvincenzo P et al (2006) Thermal characterization and annealing effects of polythiophene/fullerene photoactive layers for solar cells. Thin Solid Films 511–512:489–493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2005.12.092
Naik J, Bhajantri RF, Sheela T, Rathod SG (2018) Role of ZrO2 on physico-chemical properties of PVA/NaClO4 composites for energy storage applications. Polym Compos 39:1273–1282. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.24063
Vijeth H, Ashokkumar SP, Yesappa L et al (2018) Flexible and high energy density solid-state asymmetric supercapacitor based on polythiophene nanocomposites and charcoal. RSC Adv 8:31414–31426. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8ra06102e
Kaloni TP, Giesbrecht PK, Schreckenbach G, Freund MS (2017) Polythiophene: From Fundamental Perspectives to Applications. Chem Mater 29:10248–10283. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemmater.7b03035
Singh DK, Pandey DK, Yadav RR, Singh D (2012) A study of nanosized zinc oxide and its nanofluid. Pramana - J Phys 78:759–766. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12043-012-0275-8
Viezbicke BD, Patel S, Davis BE, Birnie DP III (2015) Evaluation of the Tauc method for optical absorption edge determination: ZnO thin films as a model system. Phys status solidi 252:1700–1710. https://doi.org/10.1002/pssb.201552007
Chatterjee DP, Pakhira M, Nandi AK (2020) Fluorescence in “Nonfluorescent” Polymers. ACS Omega 5:30747–30766. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.0c04700
Ma Y, Xu Y, Ji X et al (2020) Construction of polythiophene/Bi4O5I2 nanocomposites to promote photocatalytic degradation of bisphenol a. J Alloys Compd 823:153773. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2020.153773
Xiong HM (2010) Photoluminescent ZnO nanoparticles modified by polymers. J Mater Chem 20:4251–4262. https://doi.org/10.1039/b918413a
Djurišić AB, Leung YH (2006) Optical properties of ZnO nanostructures. Small 2:944–961. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.200600134
Zhao Z, Chen X, Wang Q et al (2019) Sulphur-containing nonaromatic polymers: clustering-triggered emission and luminescence regulation by oxidation. Polym Chem 10:3639–3646. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9PY00519F
Rafiqi FA, Majid K (2015) Synthesis, characterization, luminescence properties and thermal studies of polyaniline and polythiophene composites with rare earth terbium(III) complex. Synth Met 202:147–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.synthmet.2015.01.032
Beek WJE, Wienk MM, Janssen RAJ (2006) Hybrid solar cells from regioregular polythiophene and ZnO nanoparticles. Adv Funct Mater 16:1112–1116. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.200500573
Namsheer K, Rout CS (2021) Conducting polymers: a comprehensive review on recent advances in synthesis, properties and applications. RSC Adv 11:5659–5697. https://doi.org/10.1039/D0RA07800J
Bachhav SG, Patil DR (2015) Study of polypyrrole-coated MWCNT nanocomposites for ammonia sensing at room temperature. J Mater Sci Chem Eng 3:30. https://doi.org/10.4236/msce.2015.310005
Husain A, Ahmad S, Mohammad F (2020) Electrical conductivity and ammonia sensing studies on polythiophene/MWCNTs nanocomposites. Materialia 14:100868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtla.2020.100868
Lim J-C, Jin C, Choi MS et al (2021) Synthesis, morphology, characterisation, and ethanol gas sensing of hierarchical flower-like Co-doped WO3 nanoplates by solvothermal route. Ceram Int. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2021.04.095
Norizan MN, Zulaikha NDS, Norhana AB et al (2021) Carbon nanotubes-based sensor for ammonia gas detection–an overview. Polimery 66:175–186. https://doi.org/10.14314/polimery.2021.3.3
Pei S, Ma S, Xu X et al (2021) Modulated PrFeO3 by doping Sm3+ for enhanced acetone sensing properties. J Alloys Compd 856:158274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2020.158274
Tripathi A, Misra KP, Shukla RK (2013) Enhancement in ammonia sensitivity with fast response by doping Al2O3 in polyaniline. J Appl Polym Sci 130:1941–1948. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.39379
Acknowledgements
The author Soumya S Bulla honors financial aid form the Karnatak University in the mode of a University Research Student and Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka, India for awarding Research Fellowship under KSTePS scheme (DST)/KSTePS / Ph. D. Fellowship / PHY-04:2018-19). The scholars appreciate USIC (University Scientific Instrumentation Center), and SAIF Karnatak University, Dharwad for offering experimental facilities. With happiness and thankfulness for the funding of UGC-JRF / SRF (518772 / Dec 2015), author Chetan Chavan thanks to University Grants Commission (UGC), New Delhi. The financial support of the Science and Engineering Research Board, Government of India, New Delhi for the research project (SB/EMEQ-089/2013) is also gratefully acknowledged. The authors were also thankful to UGC, New Delhi for SAP-CAS Phase-II programme (F.530/9/CAS-II/2015(SAP-I) for providing financial assistance.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bulla, S.S., Bhajantri, R.F., Chavan, C. et al. Synthesis and characterization of polythiophene/zinc oxide nanocomposites for chemiresistor organic vapor-sensing application. J Polym Res 28, 251 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10965-021-02618-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10965-021-02618-7