Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Explaining the Association between Early Adversity and Young Adults’ Diabetes Outcomes: Physiological, Psychological, and Behavioral Mechanisms

  • Empirical Research
  • Published:
Journal of Youth and Adolescence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Previous studies have documented that early adversity increases young adults’ risk for diabetes resulting in morbidity and comorbidity with adverse health conditions. However, less is known about how inter-related physiological (e.g., body mass index [BMI]), psychological (e.g., depressive symptoms), and behavioral mechanisms (e.g., unhealthy eating and sedentary behavior) link early adversity to young adults’ diabetes outcomes, although these mechanisms appear to stem from early stressful experiences. The current study tested the patterning of these longitudinal pathways leading to young adults’ diabetes using a nationally representative sample of 13,286 adolescents (54% female) over a period of 13 years. The findings indicated that early adversity contributed to elevated BMI, depressive symptoms, and stress-related health behaviors. The impact of these linking mechanisms on hierarchical diabetes outcomes (i.e., prediabetes and diabetes) remained significant after taking their associations with each other into account, showing that these mechanisms operate concurrently. The findings emphasize the importance of early detection for risk factors of young adults’ diabetes in order to minimize their detrimental health effects.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adkins, D. E., Wang, V., Dupre, M. E., Van den Oord, E. J., & Elder, G. H. (2009). Structure and stress: Trajectories of depressive symptoms across adolescence and young adulthood. Social Forces, 88(1), 31–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Diabetes Association. (2014). Statistics about diabetes. http://www.diabetes.org/diabetes-basics/statistics/.

  • American Heart Association. (2014). Prevention and treatment of metabolic syndrome. https://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/.

  • Atlantis, E., & Baker, M. (2008). Obesity effects on depression: Systematic review of epidemiological studies. International Journal of Obesity, 32(6), 881–891.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Attar, B. K., Guerra, N. G., & Tolan, P. H. (1994). Neighborhood disadvantage, stressful life events and adjustments in urban elementary-school children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 23(4), 391–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bae, D., Wickrama, K. A. S., & O’Neal, C. W. (2014). Social consequences of early socioeconomic adversity and youth BMI trajectories: Gender and race/ethnicity differences. Journal of Adolescence, 37(6), 883–892.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ball, K., Crawford, D., & Warren, N. (2004). How feasible are healthy eating and physical activity for young women? Public Health Nutrition, 7(03), 433–441.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bauman, L. J., Silver, E. J., & Stein, R. E. (2006). Cumulative social disadvantage and child health. Pediatrics, 117(4), 1321–1328.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bellows-Riecken, K. H., & Rhodes, R. E. (2008). A birth of inactivity? A review of physical activity and parenthood. Preventive Medicine, 46(2), 99–110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biro, F. M., & Wien, M. (2010). Childhood obesity and adult morbidities. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 91(5), 1499S–1505S.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Boardman, J. D., Saint Onge, J. M., Rogers, R. G., & Denney, J. T. (2005). Race differentials in obesity: The impact of place. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 46(3), 229–243.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Brownstein, N., Kalsbeek, W. D., Tabor, J., Entzel, P., Daza, E., & Harris, K. M. (2011). Non-response in wave IV of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Chapel Hill: Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burdette, A. M., & Hill, T. D. (2008). An examination of processes linking perceived neighborhood disorder and obesity. Social Science & Medicine, 67(1), 38–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cahill, L. E., Pan, A., Chiuve, S. E., Sun, Q., Willett, W. C., Hu, F. B., & Rimm, E. B. (2014). Fried-food consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes and coronary artery disease: A prospective study in 2 cohorts of US women and men. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. doi:10.3945/ajcn.114.084129.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Christakis, N. A., & Fowler, J. H. (2007). The spread of obesity in a large social network over 32 years. New England Journal of Medicine, 357(4), 370–379.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conger, R. D., Conger, K. J., & Martin, M. J. (2010). Socioeconomic status, family processes, and individual development. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3), 685–704.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conger, R. D., Ge, X., Elder, G. H., Lorenz, F. O., & Simons, R. L. (1994). Economic stress, coercive family process, and developmental problems of adolescents. Child Development, 65(2), 541–561.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cummins, S., & Macintyre, S. (2006). Food environments and obesity—neighbourhood or nation? International Journal of Epidemiology, 35(1), 100–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dall, T. M., Yang, W., Halder, P., Pang, B., Massoudi, M., & Wintfeld, N., et al. (2014). The economic burden of elevated blood glucose levels in 2012: Diagnosed and undiagnosed diabetes, gestational diabetes mellitus, and prediabetes. Diabetes Care, 37(12), 3172–3179.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Jonge, P., Alonso, J., Stein, D. J., Kiejna, A., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., & Viana, M. C., et al. (2014). Associations between DSM-IV mental disorders and diabetes mellitus: A role for impulse control disorders and depression. Diabetologia, 57(4), 699–709.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dyer, A. R., Stamler, J., Garside, D. B., & Greenland, P. (2004). Long-term consequences of body mass index for cardiovascular mortality: The Chicago Heart Association Detection Project in Industry study. Annals of Epidemiology, 14(2), 101–108.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ellaway, A., Anderson, A., & Macintyre, S. (1997). Does area of residence affect body size and shape?. International Journal of Obesity, 21(4), 304–308.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Enders, C. K., & Bandalos, D. L. (2001). The relative performance of full information maximum likelihood estimation for missing data in structural equation models. Structural Equation Modeling, 8(3), 430–457.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, G. W., & Kim, P. (2010). Multiple risk exposure as a potential explanatory mechanism for the socioeconomic status–health gradient. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1186(1), 174–189.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fagundes, C. P., Diamond, L. M., & Allen, K. P. (2012). Adolescent attachment insecurity and parasympathetic functioning predict future loss adjustment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(6), 821–832.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Festa, A., D’Agostino, Jr, R., Williams, K., Karter, A. J., Mayer-Davis, E. J., Tracy, R. P., & Haffner, S. M. (2001). The relation of body fat mass and distribution to markers of chronic inflammation. International Journal of Obesity & Related Metabolic Disorders, 25, 1407–1415.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgibbon, M. L., Spring, B., Avellone, M. E., Blackman, L. R., Pingitore, R., & Stolley, M. R. (1998). Correlates of binge eating in Hispanic, Black, and White women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 24(1), 43–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geronimus, A. T., Hicken, M., Keene, D., & Bound, J. (2006). “Weathering” and age patterns of allostatic load scores among blacks and whites in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 96(5), 826–833.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gillman, M. W. (2004). A life course approach to obesity. In D. Kuh, & Y. B. Shlomo (Eds.), A Life Course Approach to Chronic Disease Epidemiology (pp. 189–217). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, E., Dolan, L. M., Morrison, J. A., & Daniels, S. R. (2005). Factor analysis of clustered cardiovascular risks in adolescence obesity is the predominant correlate of risk among youth. Circulation, 111(15), 1970–1977.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon-Larsen, P., Nelson, M. C., & Popkin, B. M. (2004). Longitudinal physical activity and sedentary behavior trends: Adolescence to adulthood. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 27(4), 277–283.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guo, G., North, K. E., Gorden‐Larsen, P., Bulik, C. M., & Choi, S. (2007). Body mass, DRD4, physical activity, sedentary behavior, and family socioeconomic status: The add health study. Obesity, 15(5), 1199–1206.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Helmrich, S. P., Ragland, D. R., Leung, R. W., & Paffenbarger, Jr, R. S. (1991). Physical activity and reduced occurrence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. New England Journal of Medicine, 325(3), 147–152.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, F. B., Manson, J. E., Stampfer, M. J., Colditz, G., Liu, S., Solomon, C. G., & Willett, W. C. (2001). Diet, lifestyle, and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in women. New England Journal of Medicine, 345(11), 790–797.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kipke, M. D., Iverson, E., Moore, D., Booker, C., Ruelas, V., Peters, A. L., & Kaufman, F. (2007). Food and park environments: neighborhood-level risks for childhood obesity in east Los Angeles. Journal of Adolescent Health, 40(4), 325–333.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Konttinen, H., Männistö, S., Sarlio-Lähteenkorva, S., Silventoinen, K., & Haukkala, A. (2010). Emotional eating, depressive symptoms and self-reported food consumption. A population-based study. Appetite, 54(3), 473–479.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kriska, A., Delahanty, L., Edelstein, S., Amodei, N., Chadwick, J., & Copeland, K., et al. (2013). Sedentary behavior and physical activity in youth with recent onset of type 2 diabetes. Pediatrics, 131(3), e850–e856.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kubzansky, L. D., & Kawachi, I. (2000). Going to the heart of the matter: Do negative emotions cause coronary heart disease?. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 48(4), 323–337.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lantz, P. M., House, J. S., Mero, R. P., & Williams, D. R. (2005). Stress, life events, and socioeconomic disparities in health: Results from the Americans’ Changing Lives Study. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 46(3), 274–288.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lawlor, D. A., & Chaturvedi, N. (2006). Treatment and prevention of obesity—are there critical periods for intervention? International Journal of Epidemiology, 35(1), 3–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, T. K., Wickrama, K. A. S., & Simons, L. G. (2013). Chronic family economic hardship, family processes, and progression of mental and physical health symptoms in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(6), 821–836.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levine, J. A. (2011). Poverty and obesity in the US. Diabetes, 60(11), 2667–2668.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., Klein, D. N., & Seeley, J. R. (1999). Natural course of adolescent major depressive disorder: I. Continuity into young adulthood. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(1), 56–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liang, K.-Y., & Zeger, S. L. (1986). Longitudinal data analysis using generalized linear models. Biometrika, 73, 13–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd, D. A., & Turner, R. J. (2008). Cumulative lifetime adversities and alcohol dependence in adolescence and young adulthood. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 93(3), 217–226.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Macht, M. (2008). How emotions affect eating: A five-way model. Appetite, 50(1), 1–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Macht, M., Haupt, C., & Ellgring, H. (2005). The perceived function of eating is changed during examination stress: A field study. Eating Behaviors, 6(2), 109–112.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masheb, R. M., & Grilo, C. M. (2006). Emotional overeating and its associations with eating disorder psychopathology among overweight patients with binge eating disorder. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 39(2), 141–146.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matthews, K. A., Gallo, L. C., & Taylor, S. E. (2010). Are psychosocial factors mediators of socioeconomic status and health connections?. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1186(1), 146–173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maxwell, M. A., & Cole, D. A. (2009). Weight change and appetite disturbance as symptoms of adolescent depression: Toward an integrative biopsychosocial model. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(3), 260–273.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McEwen, B. S. (1998). Stress, adaptation, and disease: Allostasis and allostatic load. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 840(1), 33–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mikolajczyk, R. T., El Ansari, W., & Maxwell, A. E. (2009). Food consumption frequency and perceived stress and depressive symptoms among students in three European countries. Nutrition Journal, 8(1), 31–38.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mokdad, A. H., Bowman, B. A., Ford, E. S., Vinicor, F., Marks, J. S., & Koplan, J. P. (2001). The continuing epidemics of obesity and diabetes in the United States. Jama, 286(10), 1195–1200.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, B. O. (2011). Applications of causally defined direct and indirect effects in mediation analysis using SEM in Mplus. Unpublished manuscript. Retrieved from http://www.statmodel.com/download/causalmediation.pdf

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2012). Mplus: The comprehensive modeling program for applied researchers. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén and Muthén. User’s guide 5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nabkasorn, C., Miyai, N., Sootmongkol, A., Junprasert, S., Yamamoto, H., Arita, M., & Miyashita, K. (2006). Effects of physical exercise on depression, neuroendocrine stress hormones and physiological fitness in adolescent females with depressive symptoms. The European Journal of Public Health, 16(2), 179–184.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nakhla, M., Daneman, D., To, T., Paradis, G., & Guttmann, A. (2009). Transition to adult care for youths with diabetes mellitus: Findings from a Universal Health Care System. Pediatrics, 124(6), e1134–e1141.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nazmi, A., Gonzalez, D. C., Oliveira, I. O., Horta, B. L., Gigante, D. P., & Victora, C. G. (2009). Life course weight gain and C‐reactive protein levels in young adults: Findings from a Brazilian birth cohort. American Journal of Human Biology, 21(2), 192–199.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Packard, C. J., Bezlyak, V., McLean, J. S., Batty, G. D., Ford, I., & Burns, H., et al. (2011). Early life socioeconomic adversity is associated in adult life with chronic inflammation, carotid atherosclerosis, poorer lung function and decreased cognitive performance: A cross-sectional, population-based study. BMC Public Health, 11(1), 42–57.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pearlin, L. I. (1989). The sociological study of stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 30(3), 241–256.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prawitz, A. D., Kalkowski, J. C., & Cohart, J. (2013). Responses to economic pressure by low-income families: Financial distress and hopefulness. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 34(1), 29–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale a self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Repetti, R. L., Robles, T. F., & Reynolds, B. (2011). Allostatic processes in the family. Development and Psychopathology, 23(03), 921–938.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, R. E., Deleger, S., Strawbridge, W. J., & Kaplan, G. A. (2003). Prospective association between obesity and depression: Evidence from the Alameda county study. International Journal of Obesity, 27(4), 514–521.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rawana, J. S., Morgan, A. S., Nguyen, H., & Craig, S. G. (2010). The relation between eating- and weight-related disturbances and depression in adolescence: A review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 13(3), 213–230.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saydah, S., Bullard, K. M., Imperatore, G., Geiss, L., & Gregg, E. W. (2013). Cardiometabolic risk factors among US adolescents and young adults and risk of early mortality. Pediatrics, 131(3), e679–686.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Seeman, T., Gruenewald, T., Karlamangla, A., Sidney, S., Liu, K., McEwen, B., & Schwartz, J. (2010). Modeling multisystem biological risk in young adults: The coronary artery risk development in young adults study. American Journal of Human Biology, 22(4), 463–472.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shin, S. H., & Miller, D. P. (2012). A longitudinal examination of childhood maltreatment and adolescent obesity: Results from the National Longitudinal study of Adolescent Health (AddHealth) Study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 36(2), 84–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sigal, R. J., Kenny, G. P., Wasserman, D. H., Castaneda-Sceppa, C., & White, R. D. (2006). Physical activity/exercise and type 2 diabetes a consensus statement from the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care, 29(6), 1433–1438.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sobal, J., & Stunkard, A. J. (1989). Socioeconomic status and obesity: A review of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 105(2), 260.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stringhini, S., Batty, G. D., Bovet, P., Shipley, M. J., Marmot, M. G., & Kumari, M., et al. (2013). Association of life course socioeconomic status with chronic inflammation and type 2 diabetes risk: The Whitehall II prospective cohort study. PLoS Med, 10(7), e1001479.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sucoff, C. A., & Upchurch, D. M. (1998). Neighborhood context and the risk of childbearing among metropolitan-area black adolescents. American Sociological Review, 63, 571–585.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wadsworth, M., Rienks, S. (2012), Stress as a mechanism of poverty’s ill effects on children: Making a case for family strengthening interventions that counteract poverty-related stress. http://www.apa.org/pi/families/resources/newsletter/2012/07/index.aspx.

  • Wang, M., Yi, Y., Roebothan, B., Colbourne, J., Maddalena, V., Wang, P. P., & Sun, G. (2016). Body Mass index trajectories among middle-aged and elderly Canadians and associated health outcomes. Journal of Environmental and Public Health. doi:10.1155/2016/7014857.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wen, M., & Maloney, T. N. (2011). Latino residential isolation and the risk of obesity in Utah: The role of neighborhood socioeconomic, built-environmental, and subcultural context. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 13(6), 1134–1141.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wickrama, K. A. S., Conger, R. D., Lorenz, F. O., & Jung, T. (2008). Family antecedents and consequences of trajectories of depressive symptoms from adolescence to young adulthood: A life course investigation. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 49(4), 468–483.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wickrama, K. A. S., Conger, R. D., Wallace, L. E., & Elder, Jr, G. H. (1999). The intergenerational transmission of health-risk behaviors: Adolescent lifestyles and gender moderating effects. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 40(3), 258–272.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wickrama, K. A. S., Lee, T. K., O’Neal, C. W., & Kwon, J. A. (2015). Stress and resource pathways connecting early socioeconomic adversity to young adults’ physical health risk. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(5), 1109–1124.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wickrama, K. A. S., Lorenz, F. O., Conger, R. D., & Elder, Jr, G. H. (1997). Marital quality and physical illness: A latent growth curve analysis. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 59, 143–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wickrama, K. A. S., O’Neal, C. W., & Lee, T. K. (2016). The health impact of upward mobility: Does socioeconomic attainment make youth more vulnerable to stressful circumstances?. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45(2), 271–285.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, P. W., D’Agostino, R. B., Sullivan, L., Parise, H., & Kannel, W. B. (2002). Overweight and obesity as determinants of cardiovascular risk: The Framingham experience. Archives of Internal Medicine, 162(16), 1867–1872.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research uses data from Add Health, a program project directed by Kathleen Mullan Harris and designed by J. Richard Udry, Peter S. Bearman, and Kathleen Mullan Harris at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and funded by grant P01-HD31921 from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, with cooperative funding from 23 other federal agencies and foundations. Special acknowledgment is due Ronald R. Rindfuss and Barbara Entwisle for assistance in the original design. Information on how to obtain the Add Health data files is available on the Add Health website (http://www.cpc.unc.edu/addhealth). No direct support was received from grant P01-HD31921 for this analysis.

Author’s Contributions

K.A.S.W. conceived of the study, conducted the preliminary analyses, and drafted the manuscript; D. B. participated in the design, analyses, and interpretation of the data; C.W.O. participated in manuscript preparation and revisions. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

This study was not funded.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Human Development and Family Science, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA

    Kandauda A. S. Wickrama

  2. Center for Family Research, The University of Georgia, 1095 College Station Road, Athens, GA, 30602, USA

    Dayoung Bae

  3. Department of Human Development and Family Science, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA

    Catherine Walker O’Neal

Authors
  1. Kandauda A. S. Wickrama
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Dayoung Bae
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Catherine Walker O’Neal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Dayoung Bae.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Ethical approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Wickrama, K.A.S., Bae, D. & O’Neal, C.W. Explaining the Association between Early Adversity and Young Adults’ Diabetes Outcomes: Physiological, Psychological, and Behavioral Mechanisms. J Youth Adolescence 46, 2407–2420 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0639-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0639-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation