Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Resilience in the Aftermath of Childhood Abuse? Changes in Religiosity and Adulthood Psychological Distress

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Religion and Health Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Of all the forms of adversity experienced during childhood, childhood abuse is known to have the largest impacts on mental health. Yet, we have a limited understanding of factors that may cushion the blow of these early insults, and it remains unclear whether stability or increases/decreases in religiosity facilitate or hinder the ability of religion/spirituality to act as a buffer. Using two waves of MIDUS data, results suggest that increases in positive religious coping (seeking comfort through religion/spirituality) during adulthood buffer the association between childhood physical and emotional abuse on psychological distress, while decreases in religious comfort exacerbate it. Religious attendance had no discernible buffering effect. Taken together, results show that the stress-moderating effects of religion depend on changes in religious coping processes over the life course.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abu-Raiya, H., Pargament, K. I., Krause, N., & Ironson, G. (2015). Robust links between religious/spiritual struggles, psychological distress, and well-being in a national sample of American adults. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 85(6), 565.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Achen, C. H. (2000). Why lagged dependent variables can suppress the explanatory power of other independent variables. Paper presented at the meeting of the Political Methodological Section of the American Political Science Association, Los Angeles, California.

  • Allison, P. (1999). Multiple regression: A primer. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Shlomo, Y., & Kuh, D. (2002). A life course approach to chronic disease epidemiology: Conceptual models, empirical challenges and interdisciplinary perspectives. International Journal of Epidemiology, 31(2), 285–293.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bierman, A. (2005). The effects of childhood maltreatment on adult religiosity and spirituality: Rejecting God the Father because of abusive fathers? Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 44(3), 349–359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bierman, A. (2006). Does religion buffer the effects of discrimination on mental health? Differing effects by race. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 45(4), 551–565.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonanno, G. A. (2012). Uses and abuses of the resilience construct: Loss, trauma, and health-related adversities. Social Science and Medicine, 74(5), 753–756.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bradshaw, M., & Ellison, C. G. (2010). Financial hardship and psychological distress: Exploring the buffering effects of religion. Social Science and Medicine, 71(1), 196–204.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bradshaw, M., Ellison, C. G., & Marcum, J. P. (2010). Attachment to God, images of God, and psychological distress in a nationwide sample of Presbyterians. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 20(2), 130–147.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Braveman, P., Egerter, S., Arena, K., & Aslam, R. (2014). Early childhood experiences shape health and well-being throughout life. Princeton, NJ: Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.rwjf.org/content/dam/farm/reports/issue_briefs/2014/rwjf414926.

  • Brewer-Smyth, K., & Koenig, H. G. (2014). Could spirituality and religion promote stress resilience in survivors of childhood trauma? Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 35(4), 251–256.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant-Davis, T., & Wong, E. C. (2013). Faith to move mountains: Religious coping, spirituality, and interpersonal trauma recovery. American Psychologist, 68(8), 675–684.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Y., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2018). Associations of religious upbringing with subsequent health and well-being from adolescence to young adulthood: An outcome-wide analysis. American Journal of Epidemiology, 187(11), 2355–2364.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, K., & Cairns, D. (2012). Is searching for meaning in life associated with reduced subjective well-being? Confirmation and possible moderators. Journal of Happiness Studies, 13(2), 313–331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeAngelis, R. T., & Ellison, C. G. (2017). Kept in his care: The role of perceived divine control in positive reappraisal coping. Religions, 8(8), 133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dein, S., & Littlewood, R. (2007). The voice of God. Anthropology & Medicine, 14(2), 213–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dervic, K., Grunebaum, M. F., Burke, A. K., Mann, J. J., & Oquendo, M. A. (2006). Protective factors against suicidal behavior in depressed adults reporting childhood abuse. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 194(12), 971–974.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Doane, M. J., & Elliott, M. (2016). Religiosity and self-rated health: A longitudinal examination of their reciprocal effects. Journal of Religion and Health, 55(3), 844–855.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dyslin, C. W., & Thomsen, C. J. (2011). Religiosity of young adults: does childhood maltreatment make a difference? Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 14(7), 625–631.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellison, C. G., & Burdette, A. M. (2012). Religion and the sense of control among US adults. Sociology of Religion, 73(1), 1–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellison, C. G., & Lee, J. (2010). Spiritual struggles and psychological distress: Is there a dark side of religion? Social Indicators Research, 98(3), 501–517.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellison, C. G., Boardman, J. D., Williams, D. R., & Jackson, J. S. (2001). Religious involvement, stress, and mental health: Findings from the 1995 Detroit Area Study. Social Forces, 80(1), 215–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Exline, J. J., & Rose, E. (2005). Religious and spiritual struggles. In R. F. Paloutzian & C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion (pp. 315–330). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falsetti, S. A., Resick, P. A., & Davis, J. L. (2003). Changes in religious beliefs following trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16(4), 391–398.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fenelon, A., & Danielsen, S. (2016). Leaving my religion: Understanding the relationship between religious disaffiliation, health, and well-being. Social Science Research, 57, 49–62.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelhor, D., Turner, H. A., Shattuck, A., & Hamby, S. L. (2013). Violence, crime, and abuse exposure in a national sample of children and youth: An update. JAMA pediatrics, 167(7), 614–621.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foynes, M. M., Freyd, J. J., & DePrince, A. P. (2009). Child abuse: Betrayal and disclosure. Child Abuse and Neglect, 33(4), 209–217.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gall, T. L., Basque, V., Damasceno-Scott, M., & Vardy, G. (2007). Spirituality and the current adjustment of adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 46(1), 101–117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Good, M., & Willoughby, T. (2008). Adolescence as a sensitive period for spiritual development. Child Development Perspectives, 2(1), 32–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hardie, J. H., Pearce, L. D., & Denton, M. L. (2016). The dynamics and correlates of religious service attendance in adolescence. Youth & Society, 48(2), 151–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hardt, J., & Rutter, M. (2004). Validity of adult retrospective reports of adverse childhood experiences: review of the evidence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(2), 260–273.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayward, R. D., & Krause, N. (2013). Patterns of change in religious service attendance across the life course: Evidence from a 34-year longitudinal study. Social Science Research, 42(6), 1480–1489.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayward, R. D., & Krause, N. (2016). Classes of individual growth trajectories of religious coping in older adulthood: patterns and predictors. Research on Aging, 38(5), 554–579.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, T. D., Kaplan, L. M., French, M. T., & Johnson, R. J. (2010). Victimization in early life and mental health in adulthood: An examination of the mediating and moderating influences of psychosocial resources. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 51(1), 48–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Idler, E. L. (1995). Religion, health, and nonphysical senses of self. Social Forces, 74(2), 683–704.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Irving, S. M., & Ferraro, K. F. (2006). Reports of abusive experiences during childhood and adult health ratings: personal control as a pathway? Journal of Aging and Health, 18(3), 458–485.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, D. (2005). Two-wave panel analysis: Comparing statistical methods for studying the effects of transitions. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67(4), 1061–1075.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, T. M., Nurius, P., Song, C., & Fleming, C. M. (2018). Modeling life course pathways from adverse childhood experiences to adult mental health. Child Abuse and Neglect, 80, 32–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jung, J. H. (2014). Religious attendance, stress, and happiness in South Korea: Do gender and religious affiliation matter? Social Indicators Research, 118(3), 1125–1145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jung, J. H. (2018). Childhood adversity, religion, and change in adult mental health. Research on Aging, 40(2), 155–179.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kent, B. V. (2019). Religion/Spirituality and Gender-Differentiated Trajectories of Depressive Symptoms Age 13–34. Journal of Religion and Health. OnlineFirst.

  • Kessler, R. C., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., Sampson, N. A., Bromet, E., Cuitan, M., et al. (2010). Screening for serious mental illness in the general population with the K6 screening scale: results from the WHO World Mental Health (WMH) survey initiative. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 19(S1), 4–22.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Koenig, H. G., Pargament, K. I., & Nielsen, J. (1998). Religious coping and health status in medically ill hospitalized older adults. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 186(9), 513–521.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koenig, H., Koenig, H. G., King, D., & Carson, V. B. (2012). Handbook of religion and health. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krause, N. (2005). God-mediated control and psychological well-being in late life. Research on Aging, 27(2), 136–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krause, N. (2006). Church-based social support and change in health over time. Review of Religious Research, 48(2), 125–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krause, N., & Ellison, C. G. (2003). Forgiveness by God, forgiveness of others, and psychological well–being in late life. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 42(1), 77–93.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Krause, N., & Pargament, K. I. (2017). Losing my religion: Exploring the relationship between a decline in faith and a positive affect. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 12(4), 885–901.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maltby, J., & Day, L. (2000). Depressive symptoms and religious orientation: Examining the relationship between religiosity and depression within the context of other correlates of depression. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(2), 383–393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manning, L. K., & Miles, A. (2018). Examining the effects of religious attendance on resilience for older adults. Journal of Religion and Health, 57(1), 191–208.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marriott, C., Hamilton-Giachritsis, C., & Harrop, C. (2014). Factors promoting resilience following childhood sexual abuse: A structured, narrative review of the literature. Child Abuse Review, 23(1), 17–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • May, M. (2018). Should I stay or should I go? Religious (dis) affiliation and depressive symptomatology. Society and Mental Health, 8(3), 214–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Min, M. O., Minnes, S., Kim, H., & Singer, L. T. (2013). Pathways linking childhood maltreatment and adult physical health. Child Abuse and Neglect, 37(6), 361–373.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mowen, T. J., & Culhane, S. E. (2017). Modeling recidivism within the study of offender reentry: Hierarchical generalized linear models and lagged dependent variable models. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 44(1), 85–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Myers, D. R., Wolfer, T. A., & Sherr, M. (2013). Faith-Outcomes for Older Adult Volunteers in Religious Congregations. Social Work & Christianity, 40(4), 384–403.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nurius, P. S., Green, S., Logan-Greene, P., & Borja, S. (2015). Life course pathways of adverse childhood experiences toward adult psychological well-being: A stress process analysis. Child Abuse and Neglect, 45, 143–153.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olson, L. R., & Green, J. C. (2017). The worship attendance gap. In M. Olson & J. Green (Eds.), Beyond Red State and Blue State (pp. 52–64). Abingdon: Routledge.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Pargament, K. I. (1997). The Psychology of religion and coping: Theory, research and practice. London: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pargament, K. I., Koenig, H. G., & Perez, L. M. (2000). The many methods of religious coping: Development and initial validation of the RCOPE. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56(4), 519–543.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pargament, K. I., Koenig, H. G., Tarakeshwar, N., & Hahn, J. (2004). Religious coping methods as predictors of psychological, physical and spiritual outcomes among medically ill elderly patients: A two-year longitudinal study. Journal of Health Psychology, 9(6), 713–730.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pargament, K. I., Ano, G. G., & Wacholtz, A. B. (2005). The religious dimension of coping: Advances in theory, research, and practice. In R. F. Paloutzian & C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 479–495). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Park, C. L. (2005). Religion as a meaning-making framework in coping with life stress. Journal of Social Issues, 61(4), 707–729.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, C. L., & Folkman, S. (1997). Meaning in the context of stress and coping. Review of General Psychology, 1(2), 115–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, C. L., Wortmann, J. H., & Edmondson, D. (2011). Religious struggle as a predictor of subsequent mental and physical well-being in advanced heart failure patients. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 34(6), 426–436.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pearce, M. J., Little, T. D., & Perez, J. E. (2003). Religiousness and depressive symptoms among adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32(2), 267–276.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pearlin, L. I. (1999). The stress process revisited: Reflections on concepts and their interrelationships. In C. S. Aneshensel, & J. C. Phelan (Eds.), Handbook of the Sociology of Mental Health (pp. 395–415). New York: Plenum.

  • Rainville, G. (2018). Public religious activities, stress, and mental well-being in the United States: the role of religious reframing in coping. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 21(3), 288–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models in social and behavioral research: applications and data analysis methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reinert, D. F., & Edwards, C. E. (2009). Attachment theory, childhood mistreatment, and religiosity. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 1(1), 25–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reinert, D. F., & Smith, C. E. (1997). Childhood sexual abuse and female spiritual development. Counseling and Values, 41(3), 235–245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, P. L. (1998). An exploration of the spirituality of fifty women who survived childhood violence. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 30, 87–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sachs-Ericsson, N., Gayman, M. D., Kendall-Tackett, K., Lloyd, D. A., Medley, A., Collins, N., et al. (2010). The long-term impact of childhood abuse on internalizing disorders among older adults: The moderating role of self-esteem. Aging & Mental Health, 14(4), 489–501.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sansone, R. A., Kelley, A. R., & Forbis, J. S. (2013). Abuse in childhood and religious/spiritual status in adulthood among internal medicine outpatients. Journal of Religion and Health, 52(4), 1085–1092.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schafer, M. H. (2014). Childhood Misfortune, Ultimate Redemption? A Stress Process-Life Course Analysis of Adult Born-Again Experiences. Sociology of Religion, 75(1), 25–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schafer, M. H., & Ferraro, K. F. (2013). Childhood misfortune and adult health: enduring and cascadic effects on somatic and psychological symptoms. Journal of Aging and Health, 25(1), 3–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schafer, M. H., Ferraro, K. F., & Mustillo, S. A. (2011). Children of misfortune: Early adversity and cumulative inequality in perceived life trajectories. American Journal of Sociology, 116(4), 1053–1091.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schieman, S. (2008). The religious role and the sense of personal control. Sociology of Religion, 69(3), 273–296.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schieman, S., & Bierman, A. (2007). Religious activities and changes in the sense of divine control: Dimensions of social stratification as contingencies. Sociology of Religion, 68(4), 361–381.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schieman, S., Pudrovska, T., & Milkie, M. A. (2005). The sense of divine control and the self-concept: A study of race differences in late life. Research on Aging, 27(2), 165–196.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schieman, S. H., Bierman, A., & Ellison, C. G. (2013). Religion and mental health. In C: Aneshensel & J.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Schieman, S., Bierman, A., Upenieks, L., & Ellison, C. G. (2017). Love thy self? How belief in a supportive God shapes self-esteem. Review of Religious Research, 59(3), 293–318.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sedlak, A. J. (1997). Risk factors for the occurrence of child abuse and neglect. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 1(1), 149–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silverstein, M., & Bengtson, V. L. (2018). Return to religion? Predictors of religious change among baby-boomers in their transition to later life. Journal of Population Ageing, 11(1), 7–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stark, R., & Finke, R. (2000). Acts of faith: Explaining the human side of religion. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.

  • Steensland, B., Robinson, L. D., Wilcox, W. B., Park, J. Z., Regnerus, M. D., & Woodberry, R. D. (2000). The measure of American religion: Toward improving the state of the art. Social Forces, 79(1), 291–318.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Straus, M. A. (1979). Family patterns and child abuse in a nationally representative American sample. Child Abuse and Neglect, 3(1), 213–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tabak, M. A., & Mickelson, K. D. (2009). Religious service attendance and distress: The moderating role of stressful life events and race/ethnicity. Sociology of Religion, 70(1), 49–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Uecker, J. E., Regnerus, M. D., & Vaaler, M. L. (2007). Losing my religion: The social sources of religious decline in early adulthood. Social Forces, 85(4), 1667–1692.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Upenieks, L., & Schafer, M. H. (2020). Religious Attendance and Physical Health in Later Life: A Life Course Approach. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 0022146520961363.

  • Upenieks, L., Schafer, M. H., & Mogosanu, A. (2019). Does Childhood Religiosity Delay Death? Journal of Religion and Health. OnlineFirst.

  • Walker, D. F., Reid, H. W., O’Neill, T., & Brown, L. (2009). Changes in personal religion/spirituality during and after childhood abuse: A review and synthesis. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 1(2), 130–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkins, A. S. (2018). To lag or not to lag? Re-evaluating the use of lagged dependent variables in regression analysis. Political Science Research and Methods, 6(2), 393–411.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilt, J. A., Grubbs, J. B., Pargament, K. I., & Exline, J. J. (2017). Religious and spiritual struggles, past and present: Relations to the big five and well-being. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 27(1), 51–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wortmann, J. H., & Park, C. L. (2008). Religion and spirituality in adjustment following bereavement: An integrative review. Death Studies, 32(8), 703–736.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zarzycka, B., & Zietek, P. (2019). Spiritual growth or decline and meaning-making as mediators of anxiety and satisfaction with life during religious struggle. Journal of Religion and Health, 58(4), 1072–1086.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zuravin, S. J., & Fontanella, C. (1999). Parenting behaviors and perceived parenting competence of child sexual abuse survivors. Child Abuse and Neglect, 23(7), 623–632.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the editor and anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on a previous version of this manuscript.

Funding

None.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Sociology, Baylor University, One Bear Place, Waco, TX, 76798, USA

    Laura Upenieks

Authors
  1. Laura Upenieks
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Laura Upenieks.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

Ethical approval was not required for this paper. The data we used are publicly available through the Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR website, https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/ICPSR/series/203).

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendix

Appendix

See Table 3.

Table 3 Descriptive statistics, MIDUS (N = 1613; all results weighted)
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Upenieks, L. Resilience in the Aftermath of Childhood Abuse? Changes in Religiosity and Adulthood Psychological Distress. J Relig Health 60, 2677–2701 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-020-01155-9

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-020-01155-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation