Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Optimization in R&D intensity and tax on corporate profits for supporting labor productivity of nations

  • Published:
The Journal of Technology Transfer Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to analyze the rates of R&D investments and taxes levied on profits of firms that can optimize the labour productivity of nations. Statistical evidence, based on OECD data, reveals that (very) high rates of R&D intensity and tax on corporate profits do not maximize the labour productivity of nations. In particular, the models here suggest that the R&D intensity equal to about 2.5% and tax on corporate profits equal to 3.1% of the GDP seem to maximize the labour productivity of countries. Beyond these optimal thresholds, the labor productivity begins to decrease. These results can be explained by the curvilinear relationship between labour productivity and R&D intensity, and between labour productivity and tax on corporate profits. Some factors and environmental determinants of these results are discussed. These findings can clarify whenever possible, some sources of labor productivity and suggest a research and industrial policy of optimal rates of R&D intensity and tax on corporate profits (as percentage of GDP) directed to support competitive advantage, technological innovation and wealth creation of nations over time.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. This study uses interchangeably the terms R&D investments as percentage of GDP and Gross domestic spending on R&D as percentage of GDP to indicate R&D intensity of countries.

  2. Cf. also, Coccia 2009b, 2010b, 2012b, c, 2014a; for sources of innovation in firms, see Coccia 2014b, 2016b, c.

  3. Cf. Cavallo et al., 2014a, 2014b for technological innovations in agricultural tractors that foster the productivity of farms and agricultural systems; Calabrese et al., 2005 for innovations that support productivity of SMEs. Cariola and Coccia 2004, Coccia 2001, 2004, 2008b, c, 2009c, 2010d, for the vital role of public research labs in generating innovations, technical knowledge and technology transfer.

References

  • Aghion, P., Akcigit, U., & Howitt, P. (2015). The Schumpeterian growth paradigm. Annual Review of Economics, 7, 557–575.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aghion, P., Askenazy, P., Berman, N., Cette, G., & Eymard, L. (2012). Credit constraints and the cyclicality of R&D investment: Evidence from France. Journal of the European Economic Association, 10(2), 1001–1024.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amendola, G., Dosi, G., & Papagni, E. (1993). The dynamics of international competitiveness. Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, 129(3), 451–471.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amore, M. D., Schneider, C., & Žaldokas, A. (2013). Credit supply and corporate innovation. Journal of Financial Economics, 109(3), 835–855.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arnold, J. M., Bert, B., Christopher, H., Åsa, J., Cyrille, S., & Laura, V. (2011). Tax policy for economic recovery and growth. The Economic Journal, 121(1), 59–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartelsman, E. J., & Doms, M. (2000). Understanding productivity: lessons from longitudinal microdata. Journal of Economic literature, 38(3), 569–594.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartelsman, E. J., Haltiwanger, J., & Scarpetta, S. (2013). Cross-country differences in productivity: the role of allocation and selection. American Economic Review, 103(1), 305–334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumol, W. J., & Wolff, E. N. (1983). Feedback from productivity growth to R & D. The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 85(2), 147–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bengoa, M., Román, V. M.-S., & Pérez, P. (2017). Do R&D activities matter for productivity? A regional spatial approach assessing the role of human and social capital. Economic Modelling, 60(January), 448–461.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benos, N. (2009). Fiscal policy and economic growth: Empirical evidence from EU countries, Centre of Planning and Economic Research Discussion Paper 107. Athens: Greece.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bleaney, M., Norman, G., & Richard, K. (2001). Testing the endogenous growth model: public expenditure, taxation, and growth over the long run. Canadian Journal of Economics, 34(1), 36–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bloom, N., Griffith, R., & Reenen, J. V. (2002). Do R&D tax credits work? Evidence from a panel of countries 1979–1997. Journal of Public Economics, 85(1), 1–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bravo-Ortega, C., & García Marín, Á. (2011). R&D and productivity: A two way avenue? World Development, 39(7), 1090–1107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. R., Martinsson, G., & Petersen, B. C. (2012). Do financing constraints matter for R&D? European Economic Review, 56(8), 1512–1529.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calabrese, G., Coccia, M., & Rolfo, S. (2005). Strategy and market management of new product development: Evidence from Italian SMEs. International Journal of Product Development, 2(1–2), 170–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carayannis, E., & Grigoroudis, E. J. (2014). Linking innovation, productivity, and competitiveness: implications for policy and practice. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 39(2), 199–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cariola, M., & Coccia, M. (2004). Technology transfer virtual network: Analysis within the national system of innovation. International Journal of Networking and Virtual Organisation, 2(2), 162–172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, R., & Petersen, B. (2002). Is the growth of small firms constrained by internal finance? Review of Economics and Statistics, 84(2), 298–309.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cavallo, E., Ferrari, E., Bollani, L., & Coccia, M. (2014a). Attitudes and behaviour of adopters of technological innovations in agricultural tractors: A case study in Italian agricultural system. Agricultural Systems, 130, 44–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cavallo, E., Ferrari, E., Bollani, L., & Coccia, M. (2014b). Strategic management implications for the adoption of technological innovations in agricultural tractor: The role of scale factors and environmental attitude. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 26(7), 765–779.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cette, G., Fernald, J., & Mojon, B. (2016). The pre-Great Recession slowdown in productivity. European Economic Review, 88, 3–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chia-Hui, H. (2015). Tax credits and total factor productivity: Firm-level evidence from Taiwan. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 40(6), 932–947.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clausen, T. H. (2009). Do subsidies have positive impacts on R&D and innovation activities at the firm level? Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 20(4), 239–253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2001). Satisfaction, work involvement and R&D performance. International Journal of Human Resources Development and Management, 1(2/3/4), 268–282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2004). Spatial metrics of the technological transfer: Analysis and strategic management. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 16(1), 31–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2005). Countrymetrics: Valutazione della performance economica e tecnologica dei paesi e posizionamento dell’Italia. Rivista Internazionale di Scienze Sociali, 113(3), 377–412.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2007). A new taxonomy of country performance and risk based on economic and technological indicators. Journal of Applied Economics, 10(1), 29–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2008a). Science, funding and economic growth: Analysis and science policy implications. World Review of Science, Technology and Sustainable Development, 5(1), 1–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2008b). New organizational behaviour of public research institutions: Lessons learned from Italian case study. International Journal of Business Innovation and Research, 2(4), 402–419.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2008c). Spatial mobility of knowledge transfer and absorptive capacity: Analysis and measurement of the impact within the geoeconomic space. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 33(1), 105–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2009a). What is the optimal rate of R&D investment to maximize productivity growth? Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 76(3), 433–446.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2009b). Measuring the impact of sustainable technological innovation. International Journal of Technology Intelligence and Planning, 5(3), 276–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2009c). Research performance and bureaucracy within public research labs. Scientometrics, 79(1), 93–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2010a). Public and private R&D investments as complementary inputs for productivity growth. International Journal of Technology, Policy and Management, 10(1/2), 73–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2010b). Foresight of technological determinants and primary energy resources of future economic long waves. International Journal of Foresight and Innovation Policy, 6(4), 225–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2010c). Energy metrics for driving competitiveness of countries: Energy weakness magnitude, GDP per barrel and barrels per capita. Energy Policy, 38(3), 1330–1339.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2010d). Spatial patterns of technology transfer and measurement of its friction in the geo-economic space. International Journal of Technology Transfer and Commercialisation, 9(3), 255–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2011). The interaction between public and private R&D expenditure and national productivity. Prometheus-Critical Studies in Innovation, 29(2), 121–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2012a). Political economy of R&D to support the modern competitiveness of nations and determinants of economic optimization and inertia. Technovation, 32(6), 370–379.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2012b). Evolutionary trajectories of the nanotechnology research across worldwide economic players. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 24(10), 1029–1050.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2012c). Converging genetics, genomics and nanotechnologies for groundbreaking pathways in biomedicine and nanomedicine. International Journal of Healthcare Technology and Management, 13(4), 184–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2013). What are the likely interactions among innovation, government debt, and employment? Innovation: The European Journal of Social Science Research, 26(4), 456–471.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2014a). Socio-cultural origins of the patterns of technological innovation: What is the likely interaction among religious culture, religious plurality and innovation? Towards a theory of socio-cultural drivers of the patterns of technological innovation. Technology in Society, 36(1), 13–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2014b). Converging scientific fields and new technological paradigms as main drivers of the division of scientific labour in drug discovery process: The effects on strategic management of the R&D corporate change. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 26(7), 733–749.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2015). General sources of general purpose technologies in complex societies: Theory of global leadership-driven innovation, warfare and human development. Technology in Society, 42(August), 199–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2016a). Asymmetric paths of public debts and of general government deficits across countries within and outside the European monetary unification and economic policy of debt dissolution. The Journal of Economic Asymmetries. doi:10.1016/j.jeca.2016.10.003.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2016b). Sources of technological innovation: Radical and incremental innovation problem-driven to support competitive advantage of firms. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management. doi:10.1080/09537325.2016.1268682.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2016c). Radical innovations as drivers of breakthroughs: Characteristics and properties of the management of technology leading to superior organizational performance in the discovery process of R&D labs. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 28(4), 381–395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coccia, M. (2017). The source and nature of general purpose technologies for supporting next K-waves: Global leadership and the case study of the U.S. Navy’s Mobile User Objective System. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 116(March), 331–339. doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2016.05.019.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coe, D. T., & Helpman, E. (1995). International R & D spillovers. European Economic Review, 39(5), 859–887.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coe, D. T., Helpman, E., & Hoffmaister, A. (2009). International R & D spillovers and institutions. European Economic Review, 53(7), 723–741.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cuneo, P., & Mairesse, J. (1984). Productivity and R&D at the firm level in French manufacturing. In Z. Griliches (Ed.), R&D, Patents and Productivity (pp. 375–392). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delgado M., Ketels C., Porter M. E., Stern S. (2012). The determinants of National Competitiveness. In NBER working paper no. 18249, July, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

  • Doraszelski, U., & Jaumandreu, J. (2013). R&D and productivity: estimating endogenous productivity. Review of Economic Studies, 80(3), 1338–1383.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geroski, P. A. (1998). An applied econometrician’s view of large company performance. Review of Industrial Organization, 13(3), 271–294.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glomm, G., & Ravikumar, B. (1997). Productive government expenditures and long-run growth. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 21(1), 183–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goel, R. K. (1990). The substitutability of capital, labor, and R&D in US manufacturing. Bulletin of Economic Research, 42(3), 211–227.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goel, R. J., Payne, J. E., & Ram, R. (2008). R&D expenditures and U.S. economic growth: A disaggregated approach. Journal of policy modeling, 30(2), 237–250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gómez, M. A. (2007). Optimal tax structure in a two-sector models of endogenous growth. Journal of Macroeconomics, 29(2), 305–325.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenwald, A. G., Leippe, M. R., Pratkanis, A. R., & Baumgardner, M. H. (1986). Under what conditions does theory obstruct research progress? Psychological Review, 93(2), 216–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Griffiths, R., Redding, S., & Van Reenen, J. (2004). Mapping the two faces of R & D: Productivity growth in a panel of OECD industries. Review of Economics and Statistics, 86(4), 883–895.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Griliches, Z. (1973). Research expenditures and growth accounting. In R. B. Williams (Ed.), Science and Technology in Economic Growth. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griliches, Z. (1979). Issues in assessing the contribution of research and development to productivity growth. The Bell Journal of Economics, 10(1), 92–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Griliches, Z. (1995). R&D and productivity: Econometric results and measurement issues. In P. Stoneman (Ed.), Handbook of the Economics of Innovation and Technological Change (pp. 52–89). Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griliches, Z. (1998a). R&D and productivity: The econometric evidence. Chicago: University of Chicago.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Griliches, Z. (1998b). Productivity, R&D, and basic research at the firm level in the1970. In Z. Griliches (Ed.), R&D and productivity: The econometric evidence (pp. 82–99). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Griliches, Z. (2000). R&D, education and productivity: A retrospective. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griliches, Z., & Lichtenberg, F. R. (1982). R and D and Productivity at the Industry Level: Is There Still a Relationship? In NBER Working Paper no. 850, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

  • Griliches, Z., & Mairesse, J. (1983). Comparing productivity growth: an exploration of French and U.S. industrial and firm data. European Economic Review, 21(1–2), 89–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guellec, D., Pottelsberghe, Van, & de la Potterie, B. (2004). From R&D to productivity growth: Do the institutional setting and the sources of funds of R&D matter? Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 66(3), 353–378.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, B. H. (1996). The private and social returns to research and development. In B. L. R. Smith & C. E. Barfield (Eds.), Technology, R&D, and the economy. Washington, D.C: Brookings Institution and American Enterprise Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall R. E., Jones C. I., 1996. The productivity of nations. In NBER Working Paper 5812, November, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

  • Hall, R. E., & Jorgenson, D. W. (1967). Tax policy and investment behavior. American Economic Review, 57(3), 391–414.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, B., & Lerner, J. (2010). The financing of R&D and innovation. In B. H. Hall & N. Rosenberg (Eds.), Handbook of the Economics of Innovation, Chapter 14 (pp. 609–639). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, B. H., & Mairesse, J. (1995). Exploring the relationship between R&D and productivity in French manufacturing firms. Journal of Econometrics, 65(1), 263–293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, B. H., Mairesse, J., & Mohnen, P. (2010). Measuring the returns to R&D. In B. H. Hall & N. Rosenberg (Eds.), Handbook of the Economics of Innovation (Vol. 2, pp. 1033–1082). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hussain, S. M. (2015). The contractionary effects of tax shocks on productivity: An empirical and theoretical analysis. Journal of Macroeconomics, 43(March), 93–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, C. I., & Williams, J. C. (1998). Measuring the social return to R&D. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 113(4), 1119–1135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kancs d’A., Siliverstovs B. (2012). R&D and non-linear productivity growth of heterogeneous firms, Institute for Prospective Technological Studies (IPTS). In IPTS working paper on corporate R&D and innovation no. 06/2012. European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Seville, Spain.

  • Kancs d’A., Siliverstovs B. (2015). Employment effect of innovation. In JRC working papers on corporate R&D and innovation, n. 2015-07, European Commission, DG Joint Research Centre, Brussels.

  • Kealey, T. (1996). The Economic Laws of Scientific Research. London: MacMillan Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Kneller, R., Bleaney, M. F., & Norman, G. (1999). Fiscal policy and growth: evidence from OECD countries. Journal of Public Economics, 74(2), 171–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krüger, J. J. (2008). The sources of aggregate productivity growth: US manufacturing industries, 1958–1996. Bulletin of Economic Research, 60(4), 405–427.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langenmayr, D., Haufler, A., & Bauer, C. J. (2015). Should tax policy favor high- or low-productivity firms? European Economic Review, 73(January), 18–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, Y., & Gordon, R. H. (2005). Tax structure and economic growth. J. Public Econ., 89(5–6), 1027–1043.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lichtenberg, F. R. (1984). The relationship between federal contract R&D and company R&D. American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings, 74(2), 73–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lichtenberg, F. R. (1987). The effect of government funding on private industrial research and development: a re-assessment. The Journal of Industrial Economics, 36(1), 97–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lichtenberg F. R. 1992. R&D Investment and International Productivity Differences. In NBER working paper no. 4161, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

  • Lichtenberg, F. R., & Siegel, D. (1991). The impact of R&D investment on productivity. New evidence using linked R&D-LRD Data. Economic Inquiry, 29(2), 203–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Link, A. N. (1981a). Basic research and productivity increase in manufacturing: Additional evidence. The American Economic Review, 71(5), 1111–1112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Link, A. N. (1981b). Research and Development Activity in U.S. Manufacturing. New York: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Link, A. N. (1982). An analysis of the composition of R&D spending. Southern Economic Journal, 49(2), 342–349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Link, A. N. (1987). Technological change and productivity growth. London: Harwood Academic Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mairesse, J., & Sassenou, M. (1991). R&D and productivity: a survey of econometric studies at the firm level. Science Technology and Industry Review, 8(April), 9–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mansfield, E. (1980). Basic research and productivity increase in manufacturing. The American Economic Review, 70(5), 863–873.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marrero, G. A. (2010). Tax-mix, public spending composition and growth. Journal of Economics, 99(1), 29–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mukherjee, A., Singh, M., & Zaldokas, A. (2017). Do corporate taxes hinder innovation? Journal of Financial Economics. doi:10.1016/j.jfineco.2017.01.004.

    Google Scholar 

  • OECD. (2016a). https://data.oecd.org/. Accessed 9 September.

  • OECD. (2016b). https://data.oecd.org/government.htm#profile-Tax. Accessed 18 October.

  • OECD (2016c). https://data.oecd.org/lprdty/gdp-per-hour-worked.htm. Accessed 18 October.

  • OECD. (2016d). https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross-domestic-spending-on-r-d.htm. Accessed 18 October.

  • OECD. (2017). OECD iLibrary. http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/economics/data/oecd-product-market-regulation-statistics/economy-wide-regulation_data-00593-en. Data extracted on 19 Jan 2017 20:43 UTC (GMT), doi:10.1787/data-00593-en

  • Rao, N. (2016). Do tax credits stimulate R&D spending? The effect of the R&D tax credit in its first decade. Journal of Public Economics, 140(August), 1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rolfo, S., & Coccia, M. (2005). L’interazione tra ricerca pubblica e industria in Italia. L'industria-Rivista di Economia e Politica Industriale, 26(4), 657–674. doi:10.1430/21151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, D. (1997). The impact of computers on manufacturing productivity growth: A multiple-indicators, multiple-causes approach. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 79(1), 68–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel D., Griliches Z. 1991. Purchased Services, Outsourcing, Computers, and Productivity in Manufacturing, NBER Working Paper no. 3678, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

  • Steil, B., Victor, D. G., Nelson, R. R. (Eds). (2002). Technological innovation and economic performance. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

  • Stern S., Porter M. E., Furman J. L. (2000). The determinants of national innovative capacity. NBER Working Paper no. 7876, September, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

  • Stiroh, K. J. (2001). What drives productivity growth? Federal Reserve Bank of New York-Economic Policy Review, 7(1), 37–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Summers, L. H. (1988). Tax policy and international competitiveness. In J. A. Frenkel (Ed.), International Aspects of Fiscal Policies (pp. 349–386). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Syverson, C. (2011). What determines productivity? Journal of Economic Literature, 49(2), 326–365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terleckyj N. E. (1974). Effects of R&D on the productivity growth of industries: an exploratory study. Report-National Planning Association n. 140, Washington D.C.

  • Verspagen, B. (1995). R&D and productivity: a broad cross-section cross-country look. Journal of Productivity Analysis, 6(2), 117–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zachariadis, M. (2004). R&D-induced Growth in the OECD? Review of Development Economics, 8(3), 423–439.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, L., Ru, Y., & Li, J. (2016). Optimal tax structure and public expenditure composition in a simple model of endogenous growth. Economic Modelling, 59(December), 352–360.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

I gratefully acknowledge financial support from the CNR - National Research Council of Italy for my visiting at Arizona State University (Grants 0072373-2014 and 0003005-2016) where this research started in 2014. The author thanks two anonymous referees and editors of The Journal of Technology Transfer for helpful comments and suggestions The author declares that he has no relevant or material financial interests that relate to the research discussed in this paper.

Author information

Author notes

  1. Mario Coccia

    Present address: Center for Social Dynamics and Complexity (CSDC), Arizona State University, Interdisciplinary Science and Technology Building 1, 550 East Orange St., Tempe, AZ, 85287-4804, USA

Authors and Affiliations

  1. CNR – National Research Council of Italy, Collegio Carlo Alberto, via Real Collegio, 30, 10024, Moncalieri, TO, Italy

    Mario Coccia

Authors
  1. Mario Coccia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mario Coccia.

Appendices

Appendix 1: Sample of countries

Australia

Austria

Belgium

Canada

Chile

Czech Republic

Denmark

Estonia

Finland

France

Germany

Greece

Hungary

Iceland

Ireland

Israel

Italy

Japan

Korea

Latvia

Luxembourg

Mexico

Netherlands

New Zealand

Norway

Poland

Portugal

Slovak Rep.

Slovenia

Spain

Sweden

Switzerland

Turkey

United Kingdom

 

United States

Appendix 2: Descriptive statistics and correlations

See Tables 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11.

Table 7 Descriptive statistics
Full size table
Table 8 Bivariate correlation
Full size table
Table 9 Partial correlation
Full size table
Table 10 Bivariate correlation
Full size table
Table 11 Partial correlation
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Coccia, M. Optimization in R&D intensity and tax on corporate profits for supporting labor productivity of nations. J Technol Transf 43, 792–814 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-017-9572-1

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-017-9572-1

Keywords

JEL Classification

Search

Navigation