Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Impact of Working Time Mismatch on Job Satisfaction: Evidence for German Workers with Disabilities

  • Research Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Happiness Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study examines the impact of working time mismatch (i.e. the discrepancy between actual and desired working hours) on individuals’ job satisfaction by disability status in Germany. Our particular interest is in testing the assumption that working time mismatch is a more serious problem among workers with disabilities as compared to workers without disabilities, especially concerning the presence of overemployment. Using longitudinal data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (1985–2011), we estimate a “Probit Adapted OLS” model which allows us to identify the factors affecting job satisfaction for people without and with disabilities. The results indicate that all workers suffering from working time mismatch are more likely to report lower levels of job satisfaction compared to those who actually work their desired hours. In addition, all selected groups of females with disabilities prefer lower hours of work per week compared to females without disabilities. Although overemployment is clearly more harmful in terms of job satisfaction than underemployment for all workers, its impact is even higher for females with disabilities as compared to their non-disabled counterparts. From a public policy perspective, these findings show the importance of reducing working time mismatch in general and overemployment in particular among females with disabilities in order to increase their levels of job satisfaction.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. For example and using the OECD’s data for the year (2013), we find that some European countries badly affected by the economic crisis have the longest working hours per week: Greece (42 h), followed by Portugal (39.3 h) and Spain (38 h). In contrast, the average weekly working hours in Germany and The Netherlands are 35.3 and 30 h per week, respectively.

  2. For more information on the GSOEP data, see, for example, Wagner et al. (2007).

  3. Wunder and Heineck (2013) indicate that “this model can be transformed into an equivalent specification where actual working time is substituted for working time preferences. Therefore, the coefficient of the working time preference in this regression equation also represents the effect of working time on well-being, after controlling for the working time mismatch (pp. 246)”.

  4. To choose between a random effect (RE) POLS and a fixed effect (FE) POLS, we have run a Hausman test (which tests the appropriateness of the random-effects estimator), and the results corroborated that the FE POLS model was preferred for all samples at any conventional level of significance. Additionally, we have also checked for multicollinearity in Eq. (1) between desired hours (S) and hours of underemployment and overemployment (UNDER and OVER). After calculating the variance inflation factors (VIF) for each regression, the results rejected the existence of multicollinearity among these variables.

  5. This two-period definition allows us to analyse long-term disabilities (of main interest for public policy), and reduces the impact of measurement error in reporting disability. The length of a disability spell is measured as the number of years during which the individual is observed as disabled, including the year of onset. See, for example, Pagan (2010) for a full description of this definition of onset of disability.

  6. The coefficients on underemployment and overemployment obtained for each sample are statistically different at the 1 % level for the female sample. This result indicates that overemployment is more detrimental in terms of job satisfaction than underemployment but only among females. This result is consistent with the work of Wooden et al. (2009).

References

  • Altonji, J., & Paxson, C. (1988). Labor supply preferences, hours constraints, and hours-wage trade-offs. Journal of Labor Economics, 6(2), 254–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Altonji, J., & Paxson, C. (1992). Labor supply, hours constraints, and job mobility. Journal of Human Resources, 27(2), 256–278.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baltagi, B., & Song, S. (2006). Unbalanced panel data: A survey. Statistical Papers, 47(4), 493–523.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barret, R. (2010). Disadvantaged groups in the labour market. Economic & Labour Market Review, 4(6), 18–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baslevent, C., & Kirmanoglu, H. (2014). The impact of deviations from desired hours of work on the life satisfaction of employees. Social Indicators Research, 118(1), 33–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beauregard, T., & Henry, L. (2009). Making the link between work-life balance practices and organizational performance. Human Resource Management Review, 19(1), 9–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, D., Otterbach, S., & Sousa-Poza, A. (2012). Work hours constraints and health. Annales d’Économie et de Statistique, 105(106), 35–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benz, M., & Frey, B. (2008). The value of doing what you like: Evidence from the self-employed in 23 countries. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 68(3–4), 445–455.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blau, P. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Böheim, R., & Taylor, M. (2004). Actual and preferred working hours. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 42(1), 149–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Booth, A., & Van Ours, J. (2009). Hours of work and gender identity: Does part-time work make the family happier? Economica, 76(301), 176–196.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bound, J. (1991). Self-reported versus objective measures of health in retirement models. Journal of Human Resources, 26(1), 106–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boyles, C., & Shibata, A. (2009). Job satisfaction, work time, and well-being among married women in Japan. Feminist Economics, 15(1), 57–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burke, R. (1999). Disability & women’s work experiences: An explanatory study. International Journal of Sociology and Social policy, 19(2), 21–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burkhauser, R., & Daly, M. (1998). Disability and work: The experiences of American and German men. Economic Review, 2, 17–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burkhauser, R., Houtenville, A., & Rovba, L. (2006). Accounting for the declining fortunes of working-age people with disabilities. Cornell Working Paper, March.

  • Burkhauser, R., & Schroeder, M. (2007). A method for comparing the economic outcomes of the working-age population with disabilities in Germany and the United States. Journal of Applied Social Science Studies, 127(2), 227–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chirikos, T., & Nestel, G. (1984). Economic determinants and consequences of self-reported work disability. Journal of Health Economics, 3(2), 117–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, A. (1997). Job satisfaction and gender: Why are women so happy at work? Labour Economics, 4(4), 341–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, A. (1999). Are wages habit-forming? Evidence from micro data. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 39(2), 179–200.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, A., & Georgellis, Y. (2004). Kahneman meets the quitters: Peak-end behavior in the labor market. Paris: Mimeo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, A., & Oswald, A. (1996). Satisfaction and comparison income. Journal of Public Economics, 61(3), 359–381.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, A., Oswald, A., & Warr, P. (1996). Is job satisfaction U-shaped in age? Journal of Occupational Organizational Psychology, 69(1), 57–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clegg, A. (1983). Psychology of employee lateness, absence and turnover: A methodological critique and an empirical study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68(1), 88–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Constant, A., & Otterbach (2011). Work hours constraints: Impacts and policy implications. IZA Policy Paper n° 35.

  • Cook, L. (2011). Disability, leisure and work-life balance. Dissertation. University of Illinois at Urbana: Champaign.

  • Cornelißen, T. (2009). The interaction of job satisfaction, job search, and job changes—an empirical investigation with German panel data. Journal of Happiness Studies, 10(3), 367–384.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diaz-Serrano, L., & Cabral, J. (2005). Low pay, higher pay and job satisfaction within the European Union: Empirical evidence from fourteen countries. IZA discussion paper n° 1558.

  • Ferrer-i-Carbonell, A., & Frijters, P. (2004). How important is methodology for the estimates of the determinants of happiness? The Economic Journal, 114(497), 641–659.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, R. (1978). Job satisfaction as an economic variable. American Economic Review, 68(2), 135–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedland, D., & Price, R. (2003). Underemployment: Consequences for the health and well-being of workers. American Journal of Community Psychology, 32(1–2), 33–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia, C., & Malo, M. (2006). Disability and absenteeism: An empirical analysis with the ECHP. Mimeo.

  • Golden, L., & Gebreselassie, T. (2007). Overemployment mismatches: The preference for fewer work hours. Monthly Labor Review, April, 18–37.

  • Golden, L., & Wiens-Tuers, B. (2006). To your happiness? Extra hours of labor supply and worker wellbeing. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 35(2), 382–397.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green, F., & Tsitsianis, N. (2005). An investigation of national trends in job satisfaction in Britain and Germany. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 43(3), 401–429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grözinger, G., Matiaske, W., & Tobsch, V. (2008). Arbeitszeitwünsche, Arbeitslosigkeit und Arbeitszeitpolitik. WSI Mitteilungen, 2(Supplement), 92–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guest, D. (2002). Perspectives on the study of work-life balance. Social Science Information, 41(2), 255–279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hale, T. (2001). The lack of a disability measure in today’s current population survey. Monthly Labor Review, 124(6), 38–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamermesh, D. (1977). Economics aspects of job satisfaction. In Oates Ashenfelter (Ed.), Essays in labor market analysis. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holtom, B., Lee, T., & Tidd, S. (2002). The relationship between work status congruence and work-related attitudes and behaviors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(5), 903–915.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, S., & Riggs, J. (2004). Disability and disadvantage: Selection, onset, and duration effects. Journal of Social Policy, 33(3), 479–501.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kreider, B. (1999). Latent work disability and reporting bias. Journal of Human Resources, 34(4), 734–769.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lange, T. (2012). Job satisfaction and self-employment: Autonomy or personality. Small Business Economics, 38(2), 165–177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawler, E. (1973). Motivation in work organizations. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lechner, M., & Vazquez-Alvarez, R. (2011). The effect of disability on labour market outcomes in Germany. Applied Economics, 43(4), 389–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S., McCann, D., & Messenger, J. (2007). Working time around the world: trends in working hours, laws, and policies in a global comparative perspective. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, B., Wang, J., & Weststar, J. (2015). Work hour congruence: The effect on job satisfaction and absenteeism. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(5), 657–675.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Locke, E. (1969). What is job satisfaction? Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4(4), 309–336.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maddala, G. (1983). Limited dependent and qualitative variables in econometrics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • McAfee, J., & McNaughton, D. (1997a). Transitional outcomes: Job satisfaction of workers with disabilities part one: General job satisfaction. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 8(2), 135–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McAfee, J., & McNaughton, D. (1997b). Transitional outcomes: Job satisfaction of workers with disabilities part two: Satisfaction with promotions, pay, co-workers, supervision, and work conditions. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 8(2), 243–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCann, D. (2005). Working time laws: A global perspective. Geneva: ILO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ng, Y. (1997). A case of happiness, cardinalism, and interpersonal comparability. The Economic Journal, 107(445), 1848–1858.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • OECD. (2013). Employment outlook 2013. Paris: OECD Publishing.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • OECD. (2014). Working life balance. OECD better life Index. http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/topics/work-life-balance/ Accessed 10 Jan 2014.

  • Oi, W. (1991). Disability and a workfare-welfare dilemma. In C. Weaver (Ed.), Disability and work. Washington: AEI Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Otterbach, S. (2010). Mismatches between actual and preferred work time: empirical evidence of hours constraints in 21 countries. Journal of Consumer Policy, 33(2), 143–161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pagan, R. (2007). Is part-time work a good or bad opportunity for people with disabilities? A European analysis. Disability and Rehabilitation, 29(24), 1910–1919.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pagan, R. (2010). Onset of disability and life satisfaction: Evidence from the German socio-economic panel. European Journal of Health Economics, 11(5), 471–485.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pagan, R. (2011). Ageing and disability: Job satisfaction differentials across Europe. Social Science and Medicine, 72(2), 206–215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pagan, R. (2013). Time allocation of disabled individuals. Social Science and Medicine, 84(May), 80–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pagan, R. (2014). What makes workers with disabilities happy? The importance of non-pecuniary characteristics. Health Economics, 23(2), 241–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pagan, R., & Malo, M. (2009). Job satisfaction and disability: Lower expectations about jobs or a matter of health? Spanish Economic Review, 11(1), 51–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Renaud, S. (2002). Rethinking the union membership/job satisfaction relationship: Some empirical evidence in Canada. International Journal of Manpower, 23(2), 137–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, J., & Aletraris, L. (2010). Mostly mismatched with a chance of settling: Tracking work hour mismatches in the United States. Work and Occupations, 37(4), 476–511.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenfeld, R., Trappe, H., & Gornick, J. (2004). Gender and work in Germany: Before and after reunification. Annual Review of Sociology, 30(1), 103–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rudolf, R. (2014). Work shorter, be happier? Longitudinal evidence from Korean 5-day working policy. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15(5), 1139–1163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schur, L. (2003). Barriers or opportunities? The causes of contingent and part-time work among people with disabilities. Industrial Relations, 42(4), 589–622.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schur, L., Kruse, D., Blasi, J., & Blanck, P. (2009). Is disability disabling in all workplaces? Workplaces disparities and corporate culture. Industrial Relations, 48(3), 381–410.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, N. (1995). What respondents learn from questionnaires: The survey interview and the logic of conversation? International Statistical Review, 63(2), 153–177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sloane, P., & William, H. (2000). Job satisfaction, comparison earnings and gender. Labour, 14(3), 473–501.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stapleton, D., & Burkhauser, R. (2003). A user’s guide to current statistics on the employment of people with disabilities. In D. Stapleton & R. Burkhauser (Eds.), The decline in employment of people with disabilities, a policy puzzle. Michigan: W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Uppal, S. (2005). Disability, workplace characteristics and job satisfaction. International Journal of Manpower, 26(4), 336–349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Praag, B., & Ferrer-i-Carbonell, A. (2008). Happiness quantified: A satisfaction calculus approach. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Praag, B., Frijters, P., & Ferrer-i-Carbonell, A. (2003). The anatomy of subjective well-being. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 51(1), 29–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verbeek, M., & Nijman, T. (1992). Non-response in panel data: The impact on estimates of a life cycle consumption function. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 7(3), 243–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Virtanen, M., Ferrie, J., Singh-Manoux, A., Shipley, M., Vahtera, J., Marmot, M., & Kivimäki, M. (2010). Overtime work and incident coronary heart disease: The Whitehall II prospective cohort study. European Heart Journal, 31(4), 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, G., Frick, J., & Schupp, J. (2007). The German Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP): Scope, evolution and enhancements. Journal of Applied Social Science Studies, 127(1), 139–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilkins, R. (2007). The consequences of underemployment for the underemployed. Journal of Industrial Relations, 49(2), 247–275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wooden, M., Warren, D., & Drago, R. (2009). Working time mismatch and subjective wellbeing. British Journal Industrial Relation, 47(1), 147–179.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wunder, C., & Heineck, G. (2013). Working time preferences, hours mismatch and well-being of couples: Are there spillovers? Labour Economics, 24(September), 244–252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, H. (2009). Analysis of the impact of the 5-day working policy on leisure activities, leisure expenditure, and leisure satisfaction of Koreans. Korean Journal for Policy Analysis and Evaluation, 19(3), 219–248.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Departamento de Economía Aplicada, University of Malaga, Plaza de El Ejido s/n, 29.071, Malaga, Spain

    Ricardo Pagan

Authors
  1. Ricardo Pagan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ricardo Pagan.

Appendix

Appendix

See Tables 5 and 6.

Table 5 Mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) of the explanatory variables used in the estimation of our job satisfaction equation
Full size table
Table 6 Job satisfaction regressions (POLS individual fixed effects) by using the worker’s official disability status
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Pagan, R. Impact of Working Time Mismatch on Job Satisfaction: Evidence for German Workers with Disabilities. J Happiness Stud 18, 125–149 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-016-9721-5

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-016-9721-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation