Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Diagnostic, Demographic, and Neurocognitive Correlates of Dysgraphia in Students with ADHD, Autism, Learning Disabilities, and Neurotypical Development

  • ORIGINAL ARTICLE
  • Published:
Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The importance of diagnostic, demographic, and neurocognitive correlates of dysgraphia in 1006 students 6–16 years was determined. Children with ADHD or autism (n = 831) and neurotypical children (n = 175) were administered the Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI), Wechsler subscales, and reading and math tests. IQ was the strongest correlate of dysgraphia (VMI scores), followed by diagnosis (ADHD/autism vs. neurotypical). Visual-fine motor ability was the only other significant correlate. Verbal and visual reasoning ability, processing speed, working memory, attention, reading, and math did not contribute significantly more to concurrently predicting dysgraphia, nor did age, sex, race, and parent occupation. Dysgraphia was common in children with ADHD (56%) and autism (56%), especially those with a learning disability in reading (71%) or math (72%). The study demonstrates the importance of controlling for both IQ and diagnosis when examining factors related to dysgraphia, which previous studies have not done. Students with ADHD, autism, learning disability, or fine motor problems should be evaluated for dysgraphia because the majority of students with any one of these problems will have impaired handwriting, which needs to be identified and addressed in school. Effective accommodations to compensate for dysgraphia are available to help avoid its negative repercussions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adi-Japha, E., Landau, Y. E., Frenkel, L., Teicher, M., Gross-Tsur, V., & Shalev, R. S. (2007). ADHD and dysgraphia: Underlying mechanisms. Cortex, 43, 700–709.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aylward, E. H., & Schmidt, S. (1986). An examination of three tests of visual-motor integration. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 328–330.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aylward, G. P., Verhulst, S. J., & Bell, S. (1990). Individual and combined effects of attention deficits and learning disabilities on computerized ADHD assessment. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 8, 497–508.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beery, K. E. (1997). The Beery-BuktenicaDevelopmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI): Administration, scoring, and teaching manual. (4th ed., rev.). Parsippany, NJ: Modern Curriculum Press.

  • Beery, K. E., & Beery, N. A. (2006). The Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI): Administration, scoring, and teaching manual. (5th ed., rev.). Minneapolis, MN: Pearson.

  • Berninger, V., Nielsen, K. H., Abbott, R. D., Wijsman, E., & Raskind, W. (2008). Gender differences in severity of writing and reading disabilities. Journal of School Psychology, 46, 151–172.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V., & Richards, T. (2010). Inter-relationships among behavioral markers, genes, brain and treatment in dyslexia and dysgraphia. Future Neurology, 5, 597–617.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bixler, E. O., Vgontzas, A. N., Lin, H-M., Calhoun, S., Vela-Bueno, A., Fedok. F., Vlasic, V., & Graff, G. (2009). Sleep disordered breathing in children in a general population sample: Prevalence and risk factors. Sleep, 32, 731–736.

  • Brossard-Racine, M., Majnemer, A., Shevell, M., Snider, L., & Bélanger, S. A. (2011). Handwriting capacity in children newly diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 32, 2927–2934.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Case-Smith, J. (2002). Effectiveness of school-based occupational therapy intervention on handwriting. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 56, 17–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conrad, A. L., Richman, L., Lindgren, S., & Nopoulos, P. (2010). Biological and environmental predictors of behavioral sequelae in children born preterm. Pediatrics, 125, e83–e89.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cornhill, H., & Case-Smith, J. (1996). Factors that relate to good and poor handwriting. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 50, 732–739.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dakin, S., & Frith, U. (2005). Vagaries of visual perception in autism. Neuron, 48, 497–507.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone, S., Biederman, J., Weber, W., & Russell, R. L. (1998). Psychiatric, neuropsychological, and psychosocial features of DSM-IV subtypes of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Results from a clinically-referred sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 185–193.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Forgrave, K. E. (2002). Assistive technology: Empowering students with learning disabilities. The Clearing House: A journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 75, 122–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frank, Y., & Pavlakis, S. G. (2001). Brain imaging in neurobehavioral disorders. Pediatric Neurology, 25, 278–287.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frazier, J. A., Biederman, J., Bellordre, C. A., Garfield, S. B., Geller, D. A., Coffey, B. J., & Faraone, S. V. (2001). Should the diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder be considered in children with pervasive developmental disorder? Journal of Attention Disorders, 4, 203–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuentes, C. T., Mostofsky, S. H., & Bastian, A. J. (2009). Children with autism show specific handwriting impairments. Neurology, 73, 1532–1537.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fuentes, C. T., Mostofsky, S. H., & Bastian, A. J. (2010). Perceptual reasoning predicts handwriting impairments in adolescents with autism. Neurology, 75, 1825–1829.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gadow, K. D., DeVincent, C. J., Pomeroy, J., & Azizian, A. (2005). Comparison of DSM-IV symptoms in elementary school-aged children with PDD versus clinic and community samples. Autism, 9, 392–415.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ghaziuddin, M., & Mountain-Kimchi, K. (2004). Defining the intellectual profile of Asperger syndrome: Comparison with high-functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 279–284.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, M. (1983). Gordon Diagnostic System. DeWitt, NY: Gordon Systems.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, M., Thomasson, D., & Cooper, S. (1990). To what extent does attention affect K-ABC scores? Psychology in the Schools, 27, 144–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graf, M., & Hinton, R. N. (1997). Correlations for the developmental visual-motor integration test and the Wechsler intelligence for children-III. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 84, 699–702.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S. (1999). The role of text production skills in writing development: A special issue-I. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22, 75–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S., Collins, A. A., & Rigby-Wills, H. (2016a). Writing characteristics of students with learning disabilities and typically achieving peers: A meta-analysis. Exceptional Children, 83, 199–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S., Fishman, E. J., Reid, R., & Hebert, M. (2016b). Writing characteristics of students with attention deficit hyperactive disorder: A meta-analysis. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 31, 75–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S., Harris, K. R., & Fink, B. (2000). Is handwriting causally related to learning to write? Treatment of handwriting problems in beginning writers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 620–633.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamstra-Bletz, L., & Blote, A. W. (1993). A longitudinal study on dysgraphic handwriting in primary school. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26, 689–699.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hattori, J., Ogino, T., Abiru, K., Nakano, K., Oka, M., & Ohtsuka, Y. (2006). Are pervasive developmental disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder distinct disorders? Brain and Development, 28, 371–374.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hellinckx, T., Roeyers, H., & Van Waelvelde, H. (2013). Predictors of handwriting in children with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 7, 176–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hetzroni, O. E., & Shrieber, B. (2004). Word processing as an assistive technology tool for enhancing academic outcomes of students with writing disabilities in the general classroom. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37, 143–154.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hooper, S. R., Swartz, C. W., Montgomery, J. W., Reed, M. S., Brown, T., Wasileski, T., et al. (1993). Prevalence of writing problems across three middle school samples. School Psychology Review, 22, 608–620.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooper, S. R., Swartz, C. W., Wakely, M. B., de Kruif, E. E. L., & Montgomery, J. W. (2002). Executive functions in elementary school children with and without problems in written expression. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 57–68.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Karlsdottir, R., & Stefansson, T. (2002). Problems in developing functional handwriting. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 94, 623–662.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kushki, A., Chau, T., & Anagnostou, E. (2011). Handwriting difficulties in children with autism spectrum disorders: A scoping review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41, 1706–1716.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lalonde, J., Turgay, A., & Hudson, J. I. (1998). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder subtypes and comorbid disruptive behavior disorders in a child and adolescent mental health clinic. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 43, 623–628.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lane, S. E., & Lewandoski, L. (1994). Oral and written compositions of students with and without learning disabilities. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 12, 142–153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langmaid, R. A., Papadopoulos, N., Johnson, B. P., Phillips, J. G., & Rinehart, N. J. (2014). Handwriting in children with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 18, 504–510.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lindgren, S. D., & Koeppl, G. K. (1987). Assessing child behavior problems in a medical setting: Development of the Pediatric Behavior Scale. In R. J. Prinz (Ed.), Advances in behavioral assessment of children and families (pp. 57–90). Greenwich, CT: JAI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luteijn, E. F., Serra, M., Jackson, S., Steenhuis, M. P., Althaus, M., Volkmar, F., & Minderaa, R. (2000). How unspecified are disorders of children with pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified? A study of social problems in children with PDD-NOS and ADHD. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 9, 168–179.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacArthur, C. A. (1996). Using technology to enhance the writing processes of students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29, 344–354.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacArthur, C. A. (2000). New tools for writing: Assistive technology for students for writing difficulties. Topics in Language Disorders, 20, 85–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maeland, A. E. (1992). Handwriting and perceptual motor skills in clumsy, dysgraphic, and normal children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 75, 1207–1217.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mattison, R. E., & Mayes, S. D. (2012). Relationship between learning disability, executive function, and psychopathology in children with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 16, 138–146.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D. (2012). Checklist for Autism Spectrum Disorder. Wood Dale, IL: Stoelting.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., Breaux, R. P., Calhoun, S. L., & Frye, S. S. (2017). High prevalence of dysgraphia in elementary through high school students with ADHD and autism. Journal of Attention Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054717720721.

  • Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (1998). Comparison of scores on two recent editions of the Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 87, 1324–1354.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (1999). Symptoms of autism in young children and correspondence with the DSM. Infants and Young Children, 12, 90–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2002). Comparative and incremental validity of the Gordon Diagnostic System and WISC-III Freedom from Distractibility Index in identifying referred children with and without ADHD. Psychological Reports, 91, 575–587.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2003a). Ability profiles in children with autism: Influence of age and IQ. Autism, 7, 65–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2003b). Analysis of WISC-III, Stanford-Binet: IV, and academic achievement test scores in children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33, 329–341.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2004a). Influence of IQ and age in childhood autism: Lack of support for DSM-IV Asperger’s disorder. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 16, 257–272.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2004b). Similarities and differences in Wechsler intelligence. Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III) profiles: Support for subtest analysis in clinical referrals. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 18, 559–572.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2006a). Frequency of reading, math, and writing disabilities in children with clinical disorders. Learning and Individual Differences, 16, 145–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2006b). WISC-IV and WISC-III profiles in children with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 9, 486–493.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2007a). Learning, attention, writing, and processing speed in typical children and children with ADHD, autism, anxiety, depression, and oppositional-defiant disorder. Child Neuropsychology, 13, 469–493.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2007b). Challenging the assumptions about the frequency and coexistence of learning disability types. School Psychology International, 28, 437–448.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2007c). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-third and -fourth edition predictors of academic achievement in children with ADHD. School Psychology Quarterly, 22, 234–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2008). WISC-IV and WIAT-II profiles in children with high-functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 428–439.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., Calhoun, S. L., Bixler, E. O., & Zimmerman, D. N. (2009a). IQ and neuropsychological predictors of academic achievement. Learning and Individual Differences, 19, 238–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., Calhoun, S. L., Murray, M. J., Morrow, J. D., Yurich, K. K. L., Mahr, F., et al. (2009b). Comparison of scores on the Checklist for Autism Spectrum Disorder, Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS), and Gilliam Asperger’s Disorder Scale (GADS) for children with low functioning autism, high functioning autism or Asperger’s disorder, ADHD, and typical development. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39, 99–1693.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., Calhoun, S. L., Chase, G. A., Mink, D. M., & Stagg, R. E. (2009c). ADHD. subtypes and co-occurring anxiety, depression, and oppositional-defiant disorder: Differences in Gordon Diagnostic System and Wechsler Working Memory and Processing Speed Index scores. Journal of Attention Disorders, 12, 540–550.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., Calhoun, S. L., & Crowell, E. (1998). WISC-III freedom from distractibility as a measure of attention in children with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Attention Disorders, 2, 217–227.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., Calhoun, S. L., & Crowell, E. W. (2001). Clinical validity and interpretation of. the Gordon Diagnostic System in ADHD assessments. Child Neuropsychology, 7, 32–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., Calhoun, S. L., Mayes, R. D., & Molitoris, S. (2012). Autism and ADHD: Overlapping and discriminating symptoms. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6, 93–285.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., Calhoun, S. L., Waxmonsky, J., Kokotovich, C., Baweja, R., Lockridge, R., et al. (2016). Demographic differences in disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (DMDD) symptoms in ADHD, autism, and general population samples. Journal of Attention Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054716664409.

  • Mayes, S. D., Gordon, M., Calhoun, S. L., & Bixler, E. O. (2014). Long-term temporal stability of measured inattention and impulsivity in typical and referred children. Journal of Attention Disorder, 18, 23–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, S. D., Waxmonsky, J., Calhoun, S. L., Kokotovich, C., Mathiowetz, C., & Baweja, R. (2015). Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (DMDD) symptoms in children with autism, ADHD, and neurotypical development and impact of co-occurring ODD, depression, and anxiety. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 18, 64–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDermott, P. A., Fantuzzo, J. W., & Glutting, J. J. (1990). Just say no to subtest analysis: A critique on Wechsler theory and practice. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 8, 290–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Molitor, S. J., Langberg, J. M., Bourchtein, E., Eddy, L. D., Dvorsky, M. R., & Evans, S. W. (2016). Writing abilities longitudinally predict academic outcomes of adolescents with ADHD. School Psychology Quarterly, 31, 393–404.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, M. J., Mayes, S. D., & Smith, L. A. (2011). Brief report: Excellent agreement between two brief autism scales (Checklist for Autism Spectrum Disorder and Social Responsiveness Scale) completed independently by parents and the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41, 1586–1590.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nichols, S., Mahoney, E. M., Sirois, P. A., Bordeaux, J. D., Stehbens, J. A., Loveland, K. A., & Amodei, N. (2000). HIV-associated changes in adaptive, emotional, and behavioral functioning in children and adolescents with hemophilia: Results from the hemophilia growth and development study. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 25, 545–556.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Overvelde, A., & Hulstijn, W. (2011). Handwriting development in grade 2 and 3 primary school children with normal, at risk, or dysgraphic characteristics. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 32, 540–548.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Psychological Corporation. (1999). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence manual. San Antonio: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rapcsak, S. Z., Beeson, P. M., Henry, M. L., Leyden, A., Kim, E., Rising, K., Andersen, S., & Cho, H. S. (2009). Phonological dyslexia and dysgraphia: Cognitive mechanisms and neural substrates. Cortex, 45, 575–591.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rapp, B., Purcell, J., Hillis, A. E., Capasso, R., & Miceli, G. (2016). Neural bases of orthographic long-term memory and working memory in dysgraphia. Brain, 139, 588–604.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richards, T. I., Grabowski, T. J., Boord, P., Yagle, K., Askren, M., Mestre, Z., et al. (2015). Contrasting brain patterns of writing-related DTI parameters, fMRI connectivity, and DTI-fMRI connectivity correlations in children with and without dysgraphia or dyslexia. Neuro Image: Clinical, 8, 408–421.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, D. J., Minshew, N. J., & Goldstein, G. (1996). Wechsler IQ profiles in diagnosing high-functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 26, 389–406.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smits-Engelsman, B. C., & Van Galen, G. P. (1997). Dysgraphia in children: Lasting psychomotor deficiency or transient developmental delay? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 67, 164–184.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tierney, C., Mayes, S. D., Lohs, S. R., Black, A., Gisin, E., & Veglia, M. (2015). How valid is the Checklist for Autism Spectrum Disorder when a child has apraxia of speech? Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 36, 569–574.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tryon, P. A., Mayes, S. D., Rhodes, R., & Waldo, M. (2006). Can Asperger’s disorder be differentiated from autism using DSM-IV criteria? Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 21, 2–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tseng, M. H., & Cermak, S. A. (1993). The influence of ergonomic factors and perceptual-motor abilities on handwriting performance. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 47, 919–926.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tseng, M. H., & Murray, E. A. (1994). Differences in perceptual-motor measures in children with good and poor handwriting. Occupational Therapy Journal of Research, 14, 19–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Volman, M. J. M., van Schendel, B. M., & Jongmans, M. J. (2006). Handwriting difficulties in primary school children: A search for underlying mechanisms. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 60, 451–460.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waxmonsky, J., Mayes, S. D., Calhoun, S. L., Fernandez-Mendoza, J., Waschbusch, D., & Bixler, E. O. (2017). Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder symptoms and sleep problems in child ADHD and general population samples. Sleep. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2017.02.006.

  • Wechsler, D. (1991). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (3rd ed.). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1992). Wechsler Individual Achievement Test. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (2001). Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (2nd ed.). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (2003). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (4th ed.). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (2014). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (5th ed.). Bloomington, MN: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weil, M. J., & Amundson, S. J. (1994). Relationship between visuomotor and handwriting skills of children in kindergarten. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 48, 982–988.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weintraub, N., & Graham, S. (2000). The contribution of gender, orthographic, finger function, and visual-motor processes to the prediction of handwriting status. The Occupational Therapy Journal of Research, 20, 121–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson, G. S. (1993). Wide Range Achievement Test 1993 edition manual. Wilmington, DE: Jastak Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolraich, M. L., Lindgren, S. D., Stumbo, P. J., Stegink, L. D., Appelbaum, M. I., & Kiritsy, M. C. (1994). Effects of diets high in sucrose or aspartame on the behavior and cognitive performance of children. New England Journal of Medicine, 330, 301–307.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatry, Penn State College of Medicine, H073, 500 University Dr, Hershey, PA, 17033, USA

    Susan Dickerson Mayes, Sara S. Frye, Rosanna P. Breaux & Susan L. Calhoun

Authors
  1. Susan Dickerson Mayes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sara S. Frye
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Rosanna P. Breaux
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Susan L. Calhoun
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Susan Dickerson Mayes.

Ethics declarations

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in this study were in accordance with ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

The study was approved by our Institutional Review Board. Informed consent was waived by the Institutional Review Board because analyses were conducted retrospectively on existing clinical data.

Conflict of Interest

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Mayes, S.D., Frye, S.S., Breaux, R.P. et al. Diagnostic, Demographic, and Neurocognitive Correlates of Dysgraphia in Students with ADHD, Autism, Learning Disabilities, and Neurotypical Development. J Dev Phys Disabil 30, 489–507 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882-018-9598-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882-018-9598-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation