Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Understanding Exercise Dependence

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Exercise dependence represents a condition in which an individual exercises excessively, often to the detriment of his or her physical and psychological health and wellbeing. Despite substantial investigation of this phenomenon, researchers have only recently developed conceptually sound diagnostic criteria for exercise dependence, and have yet to determine a suitably convincing mechanism or explanation for its onset and development. Likewise, researchers have not assessed whether therapies considered effective for other behavioural dependencies (e.g. internet or gambling addictions) are useful in the treatment of exercise dependence. With these limitations in mind, the present paper seeks to develop a conceptual basis for exercise dependence, critically review a representative portion of the exercise dependence literature, examine theories describing potential mechanisms for its development and onset, and provide recommendations for clinicians regarding the recognition, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of exercise dependence.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adams, J., & Kirkby, R. J. (1997). Exercise dependence: A problem for sports physiotherapists. The Australian Journal of Physiotherapy, 43(1), 53–58.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Adams, J., & Kirkby, R. J. (1998). Exercise dependence: A review of its manifestation, theory and measurement. Sports Medicine Training and Rehabilitation, 8(3), 265–275.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams, J., & Kirkby, R. J. (2001a). Exercise dependence and overtraining: The psychological and physiological consequences of excessive exercise. Sports Medicine Training and Rehabilitation, 10(3), 199–222. doi:10.1080/10578310210395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adams, J., & Kirkby, R. J. (2001b). A review of the physiological, neurological and behavioural aspects of addiction. Australian Journal of Primary Health, 7, 25–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adams, J., & Kirkby, R. J. (2002). Excessive exercise as an addiction: A review. Addiction Research and Theory, 10(5), 415–437.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th—TR ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aravich, P. F., Doerries, L. E., & Rieg, T. S. (1994). Exercise-induced weight loss in the rat and anorexia nervosa. Appetite, 23(2), 196. doi:10.1006/appe.1994.1049.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Avanzi, M., Uber, E., & Bonfà, F. (2004). Pathological gambling in two patients on dopamine replacement therapy for Parkinson’s disease. Neurological Sciences, 25(2), 98–101. doi:10.1007/s10072-004-0238-z.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Balter, M. (1996). New clues to brain dopamine control, cocaine addiction. Science, 271(5251), 909. doi:10.1126/science.271.5251.909. news.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bamber, D., Cockerill, I. M., & Carroll, D. (2000a). The pathological status of exercise dependence. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 34(2), 125–132. doi:10.1136/bjsm.34.2.125.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bamber, D. J., Cockerill, I. M., Rodgers, S., & Carroll, D. (2000b). It’s exercise or nothing: A qualitative analysis of exercise dependence. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 34, 423–430. doi:10.1136/bjsm.34.6.423.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bamber, D. J., Cockerill, I. M., Rodgers, S., & Carroll, D. (2003). Diagnostic criteria for exercise dependence in women. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 37, 393–400. doi:10.1136/bjsm.37.5.393.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blaydon, M. J., & Lindner, K. J. (2002). Eating disorders and exercise dependence in triathletes. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment & Prevention, 10(1), 49–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blaydon, M. J., Lindner, K. J., & Kerr, J. H. (2004). Metamotivational characteristics of exercise dependence and eating disorders in highly active amateur sport participants. Personality and Individual Differences, 36(6), 1419–1432.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bogers, R. P., van Assema, P., Brug, J., Kester, A. D. M., & Dagnelie, P. C. (2007). Psychosocial predictors of increases in fruit and vegetable consumption. American Journal of Health Behavior, 31(2), 135–145.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, A., Lui, J., & Pirke, K. M. (1990). Semistarvation-induced hyperactivity compensates for decreased norepinehrine and dopamine turnover in the mediobasal hypothalamus of the rat. Journal of Neural Transmission, 79, 113–124. doi:10.1007/BF01251006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cancrini, L. (1994). The psychopathology of drug addiction: A review. Journal of Drug Issues, 24(4), 597–623.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carelli, R. M. (2005). The nucleus accumbens and reward: Neurophysiological investigations in behaving animals. The Neuroscientist, 11(6), 524–525. doi:10.1177/107385840501100603.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, H. I., Kuo, Y. M., Liao, C.-H., Jen, C. J., Huang, A. M., Cherng, C. G., et al. (2008). Long-term compulsive exercise reduces the rewarding efficacy of 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine. Behavioural Brain Research, 187(1), 185–189. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2007.09.014.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, B. J., & Hausenblas, H. A. (2008). The role of exercise dependence for the relationship between exercise behavior and eating pathology: Mediator or moderator? Journal of Health Psychology, 13(4), 495–502. doi:10.1177/1359105308088520.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dara, K. (2003). Regular exercise among anorectic and bulimic patients. Psychiatria Hungarica, 18(2), 110–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • da Silva Lobo, D. S., Vallada, H. P., Knight, J., Martins, S. S., Tavares, H., Gentil, V., et al. (2007). Dopamine genes and pathological gambling in discordant sib-pairs. Journal of Gambling Studies, 23(4), 421–433. doi:10.1007/s10899-007-9060-x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, C., Kaptein, S., Kaplan, A. S., Olmsted, M. P., & Woodside, B. D. (1998). Obsessionality in anorexia nervosa: The moderating influence of exercise. Psychosomatic Medicine, 60, 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Castro, J. M., & Duncan, G. (1985). Operantly conditioned running: Effects on brain catecholamine concentrations and receptor densities in the rat. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 23(4), 495–500. doi:10.1016/0091-3057(85)90407-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Coverley Veale, D. M. (1987). Exercise dependence. British Journal of Addiction, 82(7), 735–740. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1987.tb01539.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, C., Deroo, L., & Rivara, F. P. (2001). The use of brief interventions adapted from motivational interviewing across behavioral domains: A systematic review. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 96, 1725–1742. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2001.961217253.x.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Epling, W. F., & Pierce, W. D. (1988). Activity-based anorexia: A biobehavioral perspective. The International Journal of Eating Disorders, 7(4), 475–485. doi:10.1002/1098-108X(198807)7:4<475::AID-EAT2260070405>3.0.CO;2-M.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Epling, W. F., Pierce, W. D., & Stefan, L. (1983). A theory of activity-based anorexia. The International Journal of Eating Disorders, 3(1), 27–46. doi:10.1002/1098-108X(198323)3:1<27::AID-EAT2260030104>3.0.CO;2-T.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giladi, N., Weitzman, N., Schreiber, S., Shabtai, H., & Peretz, C. (2007). New onset heightened interest or drive for gambling, shopping, eating or sexual activity in patients with Parkinson’s disease: The role of dopamine agonist treatment and age at motor symptoms onset. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford, England), 21(5), 501–506. doi:10.1177/0269881106073109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glasser, W. (1976). Positive addiction. New York: Harper and Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffiths, M. D. (1996). Behavioural addiction: an issue for everybody? Journal of Workplace Learning, 8(3), 19–25. doi:10.1108/13665629610116872.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Griffiths, M. (1997). Exercise addiction: A case study. Addiction Research, 5(2), 161–168. doi:10.3109/16066359709005257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Griffiths, M. (2005). A ‘components’ model of addiction within a biopsychosocial framework. Journal of Substance Use, 10(4), 191–197. doi:10.1080/14659890500114359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hausenblas, H. A., & Symons Downs, D. (2002). How much is too much? The development and validation of the exercise dependence scale. Psychology & Health, 17(4), 387–404. doi:10.1080/0887044022000004894.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koepp, M. J., Gunn, R. N., Lawrence, A. D., Cunningham, V. J., Dagher, A., Jones, T., et al. (1998). Evidence for striatal dopamine release during a video game. Nature, 393(6682), 266–268. doi:10.1038/30498.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leonhard, M. L., & Barry, N. J. (1998). Body image and obesity: Effects of gender and weight on perceptual measures of body image. Addictive Behaviors, 23(1), 31–34. doi:10.1016/S0306-4603(97)00017-8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liste, I., Guerra, M. J., Caruncho, H. J., & Labandeira Garcia, J. L. (1997). Treadmill running induces striatal Fos expression via NMDA glutamate and dopamine receptors. Experimental Brain Research, 115(3), 458–468. doi:10.1007/PL00005715.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Little, J. C. (1979). Neurotic illness in fitness fanatics. Psychiatric Annals, 9(3), 148–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacRae, P. G., Spirduso, W. W., Cartee, G. D., Farrar, R. P., & Wilcox, R. E. (1987). Endurance training effects on striatal D2 dopamine receptor binding and striatal dopamine metabolite levels. Neuroscience Letters, 79(1–2), 138–144. doi:10.1016/0304-3940(87)90686-0.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marks, I. (1990). Behavioural (non-chemical) addictions. British Journal of Addiction, 85(11), 1389–1394. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1990.tb01618.x.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, W. R., & Rollnick, S. (2002). Motivational interviewing: Preparing people for change (2nd ed.). New York: Guildford Press.

  • Moeller, F. G., Schmitz, J. M., Steinberg, J. L., Green, C. M., Reist, C., Lai, L. Y., et al. (2007). Citalopram combined with behavioral therapy reduces cocaine use: A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 33(3), 367–378. doi:10.1080/00952990701313686.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, W. P. (1979). Negative addiction in runners. The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 7(2), 57–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nestler, E. J. (1993). Cellular responses to chronic treatment with drugs of abuse. Critical Reviews in Neurobiology, 7(1), 23–39.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Niemz, K., Griffiths, M., & Banyard, P. (2005). Prevalence of pathological internet use among university students and correlations with self-esteem, the general health questionnaire (GHQ), and disinhibition. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 8(6), 562–570. doi:10.1089/cpb.2005.8.562.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ogden, J., Veale, D., & Summers, V. (1997). The development and validation of the exercise dependence questionnaire. Addiction Research, 5(4), 343–356. doi:10.3109/16066359709004348.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orford, J. (1985). Excessive appetites: A psychological view of addictions. Chichester: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petry, N. M., Litt, M. D., Kadden, R., & Ledgerwood, D. M. (2007). Do coping skills mediate the relationship between cognitive-behavioral therapy and reductions in gambling in pathological gamblers? Addiction (Abingdon, England), 102(8), 1280–1291. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2007.01907.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pierce, W. D., & Epling, W. F. (1994). Activity anorexia: An interplay between basic and applied behavior analysis. Association for Behavior Analysis Conference (1993, Chicago, Illinois). The Behavior Analyst, 17(1), 7–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prochaska, J. O., Norcross, J. C., & DiClemente, C. C. (1994). Changing for good: A revolutionary six-stage program for overcoming bad habits and moving your life positively forward. New York: Harper Collins, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, H. K., Wallace, A. S., DeWalt, D. A., Schillinger, D., Arnold, C. L., Bryant Shilliday, B., et al. (2007). Facilitating behavior change with low-literacy patient education materials. American Journal of Health Behavior, 31(Suppl 1), S69–S78.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, K. M., Seed, S. M., & DeBellis, R. J. (2008). Perspectives on neuroscience and behavior state of the art reviews: smoking cessation: A review of treatment considerations. The Neuroscientist, 14(4), 309–310. doi:10.1177/10738584080140040301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terry, A., Szabo, A., & Griffiths, M. (2004). The exercise addiction inventory: A new brief screening tool. Addiction Research and Theory, 12(5), 489–499. doi:10.1080/16066350310001637363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yates, A. (1991). Compulsive exercise and the eating disorders: Toward an integrated theory of activity. New York: Brunner/Mazel Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, K. S. (2007). Cognitive behavior therapy with internet addicts: Treatment outcomes and implications. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 10(5), 671–679. doi:10.1089/cpb.2007.9971.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zmijewski, C. F., & Howard, M. O. (2003). Exercise dependence and attitudes toward eating among young adults. Eating Behaviors, 4(2), 181–195.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, London Metropolitan University, Calcutta House, Old Castle Street, London, E1 7NT, UK

    Jeremy Adams

Authors
  1. Jeremy Adams
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jeremy Adams.

Additional information

Dr. Jeremy Adams is a Principal Lecturer in Sport and Performance Psychology (MSc programme director).

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Adams, J. Understanding Exercise Dependence. J Contemp Psychother 39, 231–240 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10879-009-9117-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10879-009-9117-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation