Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Protective Factors for Depression Among African American Children of Predominantly Low-Income Mothers with Depression

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Maternal depression has a deleterious impact on child psychological outcomes, including depression symptoms. However, there is limited research on the protective factors for these children and even less for African Americans. The purpose of the study is to examine the effects of positive parenting skills on child depression and the potential protective effects of social skills and kinship support among African American children whose mothers are depressed and low-income. African American mothers (n = 77) with a past year diagnosis of a depressive disorder and one of their children (ages 8–14) completed self-report measures of positive parenting skills, social skills, kinship support, and depression in a cross-sectional design. Regression analyses demonstrated that there was a significant interaction effect of positive parenting skills and child social skills on child depression symptoms. Specifically, parent report of child social skills was negatively associated with child depression symptoms for children exposed to poorer parenting skills; however, this association was not significant for children exposed to more positive and involved parenting. Kinship support did not show a moderating effect, although greater maternal depression severity was correlated with more child-reported kinship support. The study findings have implications for developing interventions for families with maternal depression. In particular, parenting and child social skills are potential areas for intervention to prevent depression among African American youth.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Barnett, M. A. (2008). Economic disadvantage in complex family systems: Expansion of family stress models. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 11, 145–161. doi:10.1007/s10567-008-0034-z.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beardslee, W. R., & Podorefsky, D. (1988). Resilient adolescents whose parents have serious affective and other psychiatric disorders: Importance of self-understanding and relationships. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 63–69.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Manual for Beck Depression Inventory-II. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker-Weidman, E. G., Jacobs, R. H., Reinecke, M. A., Silva, S. G., & March, J. S. (2010). Social problem-solving among adolescents treated for depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48, 11–18. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.08.006.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boyd, R. C., Diamond, G. S., & Bourjolly, J. N. (2006). Developing a family-based depression prevention program in urban community mental health clinics: A qualitative investigation. Family Process, 45, 187–203. doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.2006.00090.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boyd, R. C., Diamond, G. S., & Ten Have, T. R. (2011a). Emotional and behavioral functioning of offspring of African American mothers with depression. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 42, 594–608. doi:10.1007/s10578-011-0235-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boyd, R. C., & Gillham, J. E. (2009). Review of interventions for parental depression from toddlerhood to adolescence. Current Psychiatry Reviews, 5, 226–235. doi:10.2174/157340009789542123.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boyd, R. C., Joe, Ss., Michalopoulos, L., Davis, E., & Jackson, J. S. (2011b). Prevalence of mood disorders and service use among US mothers by race and ethnicity: Results from the National Survey of American Life. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 72, 1538–1545. doi:10.4088/JCP.10m06468.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breslau, J., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Kendler, K. S., Su, M., Williams, D., & Kessler, R. C. (2006). Specifying race-ethnic differences in risk for psychiatric disorder in a USA national sample. Psychological Medicine, 36, 57–68. doi:10.1017/s0033291705006161.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, S. B., Morgan-Lopez, A. A., Cox, M. J., McLoyd, V. C., & National Institute of Child, Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network. (2009). A latent class analysis of maternal depressive symptoms over 12 years and offspring adjustment in adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 479–493. doi:10.1037/a0015923.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cardemil, E., Reivich, K. J., Beevers, C. G., Seligman, M. E. P., & James, J. (2007). The prevention of depressive symptoms in low-income, minority children: Two-year follow-up. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 313–327. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2006.03.010.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carter, A. S., Garrity-Rokous, F. E., Chazan-Cohen, R., Little, C., & Briggs-Gowan, M. J. (2001). Maternal depression and comorbidity: Predicting early parenting, attachment security, and toddler social-emotional problems and competencies. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 18–26. doi:10.1097/00004583-200101000-00012.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ceballo, R., & McLoyd, V. C. (2002). Social support and parenting in poor, dangerous neighborhoods. Child Development, 73, 1310–1321. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00473.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Compas, B. E., Champion, J. E., Forehand, R., Cole, D. A., Reeslund, K. L., Fear, J., Roberts, L. (2010). Coping and parenting: Mediators of 12-month outcomes of a family group cognitive–behavioral preventive intervention with families of depressed parents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78, 623–634. doi:10.1037/a0020459.

    Google Scholar 

  • Compas, B. E., Forehand, R., Keller, G., Champion, J. E., Rakow, A., Reeslund, K. L., et al. (2009). Randomized controlled trial of a family cognitive-behavioral preventive intervention for children of depressed parents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77, 1007–1020. doi:10.1037/a0016930.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coyne, J. C., Kessler, R. C., Tal, M., Turnbull, J., Wortman, C. B., & Greden, J. F. (1987). Living with a depressed person. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 347–352. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.55.3.347.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dallaire, D. H., Cole, D. A., Smith, T. M., Ciesla, J. A., LaGrange, B., Jacquez, F. M., et al. (2008). Predicting children’s depressive symptoms from community and individual risk factors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 830–846. doi:10.1007/s10964-008-9270-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dozois, D. J. A., Dobson, K. S., & Ahnberg, J. L. (1998). A psychometric evaluation of the Beck Depression Inventory–II. Psychological Assessment, 10, 83–89. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.10.2.83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DuRant, R. H., Cadenhead, C., Pendergrast, R. A., & Slavens, G. (1994). Factors associated with the use of violence among urban Black adolescents. American Journal of Public Health, 84(4), 612–617. doi:10.2105/AJPH.84.4.612.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • First, M. B., Spitzer, R. L., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J. B. W. (2001). Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV-TR axis I disorders, research version, patient edition. New York: Biometrics Research, New York State Psychiatric Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frye, A. A., & Goodman, S. H. (2000). Which social problem-solving components buffer depression in adolescent girls? Cognitive Therapy and Research, 24, 637–650. doi:10.1023/a:1005583210589.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garland, A. F., Lau, A. S., Yeh, M., McCabe, K. M., Hough, R. L., & Landsverk, J. A. (2005). Racial and ethnic differences in utilization of mental health services among high-risk youths. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 1336–1343. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.7.1336.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gary, F. A., & Yarandi, H. N. (2004). Depression among southern rural African American women: A factor analysis of the Beck Depression Inventory II. Nursing Research, 53(4), 251–259. doi:10.1097/00006199-200407000-00008.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • González, H. M., Vega, W. A., Williams, D. R., Tarraf, W., West, B. T., & Neighbors, H. W. (2010). Depression care in the United States too little for too few. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67, 37–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, S. H. (2007). Depression in mothers. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 3, 107–135.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, S. H., & Gotlib, I. H. (1999). Risk for psychopathology in the children of depressed mothers: A developmental model for understanding mechanisms of transmission. Psychological Review, 106, 458–490. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.106.3.458.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, S. H., Rouse, M. H., Connell, A. M., Broth, M. R., Hall, C. M., & Heyward, D. (2011). Maternal depression and child psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 1–27. doi:10.1007/s10567-010-0080-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gorman-Smith, D., Tolan, P., Henry, D., & Florsheim, P. (2000). Patterns of family functioning and adolescent outcomes among urban African American and Mexican American families. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 436–457. doi:10.1037//0893-3200.14.3.436.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gorman-Smith, D., Tolan, P. H., Zelli, A., & Huesmann, L. R. (1996). The relation of family functioning to violence among inner-city minority youths. Journal of Family Psychology, 10, 115–129. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.10.2.115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham-Bermann, S. A., Gruber, G., Howell, K. H., & Girz, L. (2009). Factors discriminating among profiles of resilience and psychopathology in children exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV). Child Abuse and Neglect, 33, 648–660. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.01.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gresham, F. M., & Elliott, S. N. (1990). Social skills rating system. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grothe, K. B., Dutton, G. R., Jones, G. N., Bodenlos, J., Ancona, M., & Brantley, P. J. (2005). Validation of the Beck Depression Inventory-II in a low-income African American sample of medical outpatients. Psychological Assessment, 17, 110–114. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.17.1.110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, D. M., Cassidy, E. F., & Stevenson, H. C. (2008). Acting “tough” in a “tough” world: An examination of fear among urban African American adolescents. Journal of Black Psychology, 34, 381–398. doi:10.1177/0095798408314140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hammack, P. L. (2003). Towards a unified theory of depression among urban African American youth: Integrating socioecologic, cognitive, family stress, and biopsychosocial perspectives. Journal of Black Psychology, 29, 187–209. doi:10.1177/0095798403029002004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hipwell, A. E., Murray, L., Ducournau, P., & Stein, A. (2005). The effects of maternal depression and parental conflict on children’s peer play. Child: Care, Health and Development, 31, 11–23. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2005.00448.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, J. M. (2007). Exposure to chronic community violence: Resilience in African American children. Journal of Black Psychology, 33, 125–149. doi:10.1177/0095798407299511.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, D. J., Forehand, R., Brody, G. H., & Armistead, L. (2002). Positive parenting and child psychosocial adjustment in inner-city single-parent African American families: The role of maternal optimism. Behavior Modification, 26, 464–481. doi:10.1177/0145445502026004002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, D. J., Forehand, R., & Neary, E. M. (2001). Family transmission of depressive symptoms: Replication across Caucasian and African American mother-child dyads. Behavior Therapy, 32, 123–138. doi:10.1016/S0005-7894(01)80048-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kenny, M. E., Blustein, D. L., Chaves, A., Grossman, J. M., & Gallagher, L. A. (2003). The role of perceived barriers and relational support in the educational and vocational lives of urban high school students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50, 142–155. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.50.2.142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Chiu, W. T., Demler, O., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 617–627.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koblinsky, S. A., Kuvalanka, K. A., & Randolph, S. M. (2006). Social skills and behavior problems of urban, African American preschoolers: Role of parenting practices, family conflict, and maternal depression. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76, 554–563. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.76.4.554.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kovacs, M. (1992). Children’s depression inventory manual. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ladd, G. W. (1990). Having friends, keeping friends, making friends, and being liked by peers in the classroom: Predictors of children’s early school adjustment? Child Development, 61, 1081–1100. doi:10.2307/1130877.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leckman-Westin, E., Cohen, P. R., & Stueve, A. (2009). Maternal depression and mother child interaction patterns: Association with toddler problems and continuity of effects to late childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1176–1184. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02083.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewinsohn, P. M., Olino, T. M., & Klein, D. N. (2005). Psychosocial impairment in offspring of depressed parents. Psychological Medicine: A Journal of Research in Psychiatry and the Allied Sciences, 35, 1493–1503. doi:10.1017/S0033291705005350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, S. T., Nussbaum, K. M., & Richards, M. H. (2007). Risk and protective factors for urban African American youth. American Journal of Community Psychology, 39, 21–35. doi:10.1007/s10464-007-9088-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lovejoy, M. C., Graczyk, P. A., O’Hare, E., & Neuman, G. (2000). Maternal depression and parenting behavior: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 561–592. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(98)00100-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luoma, I., Tamminen, T., Kaukonen, P., Laippala, P., Puura, K., Salmelin, R., et al. (2001). Longitudinal study of maternal depressive symptoms and child well-being. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1367–1374. doi:10.1097/00004583-200112000-00006.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71, 543–562. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00164.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCarty, C. A., McMahon, R. J., & Conduct Problems Research Group. (2003). Mediators of the relation between maternal depressive symptoms and child internalizing and disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of Family Psychology, 17, 545–556. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.17.4.545.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, M. M., Morrison, F. J., & Holmes, D. L. (2000). Children at risk for early academic problems: The role of learning-related social skills. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 15, 307–329. doi:10.1016/S0885-2006(00)00069-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKnight-Eily, L. R., Presley-Cantrell, L., Elam-Evans, L. D., Chapman, D. P., Kaslow, N. J., & Perry, G. S. (2009). Prevalence and correlates of current depressive symptomatology and lifetime diagnosis of depression in black women. Women’s Health Issues, 19, 243–252. doi:10.1016/j.whi.2009.04.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, S. J., Lewin, A., Horn, I. B., Valentine, D., Sanders-Phillips, K., & Joseph, J. G. (2010). How does violence exposure affect the psychological health and parenting of young African-American mothers? Social Science and Medicine, 70, 526–533. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.10.048.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, D. A., Marelich, W. D., Herbeck, D. M., & Payne, D. L. (2009). Family routines and parental monitoring as protective factors among early and middle adolescents affected by maternal HIV/AIDS. Child Development, 80, 1676–1691.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murry, V. M., Bynum, M. S., Brody, G. H., Willert, A., & Stephens, D. (2001). African American single mothers and children in context: A review of studies on risk and resilience. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 4, 133–155. doi:10.1023/a:1011381114782.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Myers, K., & Winters, N. C. (2002). Ten-year review of rating scales. II: Scales for internalizing disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 634–659. doi:10.1097/00004583-200206000-00004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neighbors, H. W., Caldwell, C., Williams, D. R., Nesse, R., Taylor, R. J., Bullard, K. M., et al. (2007). Race, ethnicity, and the use of services for mental disorders—results from the National Survey of American Life. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 485–494. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.64.4.485.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riley, A. W., Coiro, M. J., Broitman, M., Colantuoni, E., Hurley, K. M., Bandeen-Roche, K., et al. (2009). Mental health of children of low-income depressed mothers: Influences of parenting, family environment, and raters. Psychiatric Services, 60, 329–336.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riley, A. W., Valdez, C. R., Barrueco, S., Mills, C., Beardslee, W., Sandler, I., et al. (2008). Development of a family-based program to reduce risk and promote resilience among families affected by maternal depression: Theoretical basis and program description. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 11, 12–29. doi:10.1007/s10567-008-0030-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ross, A. G., Shochet, I. M., & Bellair, R. (2010). The role of social skills and school connectedness in preadolescent depressive symptoms. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 39, 269–275. doi:10.1080/15374410903532692.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silk, J. S., Shaw, D. S., Skuban, E. M., Oland, A. A., & Kovacs, M. (2006). Emotion regulation strategies in offspring of childhood-onset depressed mothers. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 69–78. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01440.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silk, J. S., Vanderbilt-Adriance, E., Shaw, D. S., Forbes, E. E., Whalen, D. J., Ryan, N. D., & Dahl, R. E. (2007). Resilience among children and adolescents at risk for depression: Mediation and moderation across social and neurobiological context. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 841–865. doi:10.1017/s0954579407000417.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steer, R. A., Ball, R., Ranieri, W. F., & Beck, A. T. (1999). Dimensions of the Beck Depression Inventory-II in clinically depressed outpatients. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55, 117–128. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(199901)55:1<117:AID-JCLP12>3.0.CO;2-A.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, R. D. (2010). Risk and resilience in low-income African American families: Moderating effects of kinship social support. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16, 344–351. doi:10.1037/a0018675.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, R. (2011). Kin support and parenting practices among low-income African American mothers: Moderating effects of mothers’ psychological adjustment. Journal of Black Psychology, 37(1), 3–23. doi:10.1177/0095798410372623.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, R. D., Casten, R., & Flickinger, S. M. (1993). Influence of kinship social support on the parenting experiences and psychosocial adjustment of African-American adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 29, 382–388. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.29.2.382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, L., & Ingram, R. E. (1999). Cognitive reactivity and depressotypic information processing in children of depressed mothers. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 202–210. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.108.2.202.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, R. D., & Roberts, D. (1995). Kinship support and maternal and adolescent well-being in economically disadvantaged African-American families. Child Development, 66, 1585–1597. doi:10.2307/1131898.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, R. D., Seaton, E., & Dominguez, A. (2008). Kinship support, family relations, and psychological adjustment among low-income African American mothers and adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 18, 1–22. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2008.00548.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, M. P., Kaslow, N. J., Kingree, J. B., Rashid, A., Puett, R., Jacobs, D., & Matthews, A. (2000). Partner violence, social support, and distress among inner-city African American women. American Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 127–143. doi:10.1023/a:1005198514704.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tolan, P. H., Gorman-Smith, D., & Henry, D. B. (2000). Chicago youth development study parenting practices measure: Instructions for scaling technical report. Chicago: Families and Communities Research Group, Institute for Juvenile Research, Department of Psychiatry, The University of Illinois at Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weissman, M. M., Wickramaratne, P., Nomura, Y., Warner, V., Pilowsky, D., & Verdeli, H. (2006). Offspring of depressed parents: 20 years later. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 1001–1008. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.6.1001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Welsh, M., Parke, R. D., Widaman, K., & O’Neil, R. (2001). Linkages between children’s social and academic competence: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of School Psychology, 39, 463–482. doi:10.1016/S0022-4405(01)00084-X.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. R., Gonzalez, H. M., Neighbors, H., Nesse, R., Abelson, J. M., Sweetman, J., et al. (2007). Prevalence and distribution of major depressive disorder in African Americans, Caribbean blacks, and non-Hispanic whites—results from the National Survey of American Life. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 305–315. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.64.3.305.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. (2008). World health statistics 2008. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/whosis/whostat/2008/en/index.html.

  • Wu, Y. P., Selig, J. P., Roberts, M. C., & Steele, R. G. (2011). Trajectories of postpartum maternal depressive symptoms and children’s social skills. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20, 414–423. doi:10.1007/s10826-010-9407-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, M. A., Ramirez-Valles, J., Zapert, K. M., & Maton, K. I. (2000). A longitudinal study of stress-buffering effects for urban African-American male adolescent problem behaviors and mental health. Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 17–33. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6629(200001)28:1<17:AID-JCOP4>3.0.CO;2-I.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the National Institute of Mental Health (K01 MH 068619). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institute of Mental Health or the National Institutes of Health. The authors would like to thank Brooke Paskewich for her helpful comments on this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA

    Rhonda C. Boyd & Christine Waanders

Authors
  1. Rhonda C. Boyd
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Christine Waanders
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rhonda C. Boyd.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Boyd, R.C., Waanders, C. Protective Factors for Depression Among African American Children of Predominantly Low-Income Mothers with Depression. J Child Fam Stud 22, 85–95 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-012-9588-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-012-9588-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation