Skip to main content
Log in

Economic Disadvantage in Complex Family Systems: Expansion of Family Stress Models

  • Published:
Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Economic disadvantage is associated with multiple risks to early socioemotional development. This article reviews research regarding family stress frameworks to model the pathways from economic disadvantage to negative child outcomes via family processes. Future research in this area should expand definitions of family and household to incorporate diversity and instability. This expansion would be particularly relevant for research among low-income ethnic minority families and families with young children. This line of research would highlight specific pathways to target to prevent the onset of early parental and child dysfunction.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aber, J. L., Jones, S., & Cohen, J. (2000). The impact of poverty on the mental health and development of very young children. In C. H. Zeanah (Ed.), Handbook of infant mental health (pp. 113–144). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ackerman, B. P., Brown, E. D., & Izard, C. E. (2004). The relations between contextual risk, earned income, and the school adjustment of children from economically disadvantaged families. Developmental Psychology, 40, 204–216. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.204.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ackerman, B. P., Brown, E. D., D’Eramo, K. S., & Izard, C. E. (2002). Maternal relationship instability and the school behavior of children from disadvantaged families. Developmental Psychology, 38, 694–704. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.38.5.694.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ackerman, B. P., Kogos, J., Youngstrom, E., Schoff, K., & Izard, C. (1999). Family instability and the problem behaviors of children from economically disadvantaged families. Developmental Psychology, 35, 258–268. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.35.1.258.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Adam, E. K. (2004). Beyond quality: Parental and residential stability and children’s adjustment. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(5), 210–213. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00310.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adam, E. K., & Chase-Lansdale, P. L. (2002). Home sweet home(s): Parental separation, residential moves and adjustment within low-income adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 38, 792–805. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.38.5.792.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Amato, P. R., & Gilbreth, J. G. (1999). Nonresident fathers and children’s well-being: A meta-analysis. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61, 557–573. doi:10.2307/353560.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beiser, M., Hou, F., Hyman, I., & Tousignant, M. (2002). Poverty, family process and the mental health of immigrant children in Canada. American Journal of Public Health, 92(2), 220–227.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Black, M. M., Papas, M. A., Hussey, J. M., Hunter, W., Dubowitz, H., Kotch, J. B., English, D. & Schneider, M. (2002). Behavior and development of preschool children born to adolescent mothers: Risk and 3-generation households. Pediatrics, 109(4), 573–580.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bolger, K. E., Patterson, C. J., Thompson, W. W., & Kupersmidt, J. B. (1995). Psychosocial adjustment among children experiencing persistent and intermittent family economic hardship. Child Development, 66, 1107–1129. doi:10.2307/1131802.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (2002). Socioeconomic status and child development. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 371–399.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brody, G. H., & Flor, D. L. (1997). Maternal psychological functioning, family processes, and child adjustment in rural, single-parent, African American families. Developmental Psychology, 33(6), 1000–1011. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.33.6.1000.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brody, G. H., & Flor, D. L. (1998). Maternal resources, parenting practices, and child competence in rural, single-parent African American families. Child Development, 69(3), 803–816. doi:10.2307/1132205.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks-Gunn, J., & Duncan, G. J. (1997). The effects of poverty on children. The Future of Children, 7(2), 55–71. doi:10.2307/1602387.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brophy-Herb, H. E., Gibbons, C., Omar, M. A., & Schiffman, R. F. (1999). Low-income fathers and their infants: Interactions during teaching episodes. Infant Mental Health Journal, 20, 305–321.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cabrera, N. J., Tamis-LeMonda, C., Bradley, R. H., Hofferth, S., & Lamb, M. (2000). Fatherhood in the twenty-first century. Child Development, 71(1), 127–136. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00126.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cavanagh, S. E., Schiller, K. S., & Riegle-Crumb, C. (2006). Marital transitions, parenting & schooling: Links between family structure history and adolescents academic status. Sociology of Education, 79, 329–354.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chase-Lansdale, P. L., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Zamsky, E. S. (1994). Young African-American multigenerational families in poverty: Quality of mothering and grandmothering. Child Development, 65, 373–393. doi:10.2307/1131390.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chase-Lansdale, P. L., Gordon, R. A., Coley, R. L., Wakschlag, L. S., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1999). Young African American multigenerational families in poverty: The contexts, exchanges, and processes of their lives. In E. M. Hetherington (Ed.), Coping with divorce, single parenting and remarriage: A risk and resiliency perspective (pp. 165–191). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

  • Coley, R. L. (1998). Children’s socialization experiences and functioning in single-mother households: The importance of fathers and other men. Child Development, 69(1), 219–230. doi:10.2307/1132081.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coley, R. L. (2001). (In)visible men: Emerging research on low-income, married, and minority fathers. American Psychologist, 56(9), 743–753. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.56.9.743.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coley, R. L., & Chase-Lansdale. P. L. (1999). Stability and change in paternal involvement among urban African American fathers. Journal of Family Psychology, 13(3), 416–435. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.13.3.416.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conger, R. D., Conger, K. J (2002). Resilience in midwestern families: Selected findings from the first decade of a prospective longitudinal study. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 361–373. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00361.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conger, R. D., & Donellan, M. B. (2007). An interactionist perspective on the socioeconomic context of human development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 175–199. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085551.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conger, R. D., Conger, K. J., Elder, G. H., Lorenz, F. O., Simons, R. L., & Whitbeck, L. B. (1992). A family process model of economic hardship and adjustment of early adolescent boys. Child Development, 63, 526–541. doi:10.2307/1131344.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conger, R. D., Ge, X., Elder, G. H., Lorenz, F. O., & Simons, R. L. (1994). Economic stress, coercive family process, and developmental problems of adolescents. Chlid Development, 65, 541–561. doi:10.2307/1131401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conger, R. D., Wallace, L. E., Sun, Y., Simons, R. L., McLoyd, V. C., & Brody, G. H. (2002). Economic pressure in African American families: A replication and extension of the family stress model. Developmental Psychology, 38(2), 179–193. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.38.2.179.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Costello, E. J., Keeler, G. P., & Angold, A. (2001). Poverty, race/ethnicity, and psychiatric disorder: A study of rural children. American Journal of Public Health, 91(6), 1494–1498.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cox, M. J., & Paley, B. (1997). Families as systems. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 243–267.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dearing, E., McCartney, K., & Taylor, B. A. (2001). Change in family income to needs matters more for children with less. Child Development, 72(6), 1779–1793. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00378.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dill, B. T., & Williams, B. B. (1992). Race, gender and poverty in the rural south: African American single mothers. In C. M. Duncan (Ed.), Rural poverty in America (pp. 97–110). New York: Auburn House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Doherty, W. J., Kouneski, E. F., & Erickson, M. F. (1998). Responsible fathering: An overview and conceptual framework. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 277–292. doi:10.2307/353848.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dorsey, S., Forehand, R., & Brody, G. (2007). Coparenting, conflict and parenting behavior in economically disadvantaged single parent African American families: The role of maternal psychological distress. Journal of Family Violence, 22, 621–630. doi:10.1007/s10896-007-9114-y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elder, G. H. (1996). Human lives in changing societies: Life course and developmental insights. In R. B. Cairns, G. H. Elder, & E. J. Costello (Eds.), Developmental Science (pp. 31–62). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elder, G. H., Eccles, J. S., Arelt, M., & Lord, S. (1995). Inner-city parents under economic pressure: Perspectives on the strategies of parenting. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57, 771–784. doi:10.2307/353931.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elder, G. H., Nguyen, T. V., & Caspi, A. (1985). Linking family hardship to children’s lives. Child Development, 56(2), 361–375. doi:10.2307/1129726.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, G. W., & English, K. (2002). The environment of poverty: Multiple stressor exposure, psychophysiological stress, and socioemotional adjustment. Child Development, 73(4), 1238–1248. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00469.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fein, D. J. & Ooms, T. (2006). What do we know about couples and marriage in disadvantaged populations. Center for Law and Social Policy. Available at: http://www.clasp.org/publications/couples_marriage_disadvantaged.pdf.

  • Florsheim, P., Tolan, P. H., & Gorman-Smith, D. (1996). Family processes and risk for externalizing behavior problems among African American and Hispanic boys. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(6), 1222–1230. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.64.6.1222.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fomby, P., & Cherlin, A. (2007). Family instability and child well-being. American Sociological Review, 72, 181–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forehand, R., & Jones, D. J. (2003). Neighborhood violence and coparent conflict: Interactive influence on child psychosocial development. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31(6), 591–604. doi:10.1023/A:1026206122470.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foster, E. M., & Kalil, A. (2007). Living arrangements and children’s development in low-income white, Black and Latino families. Child Development, 78(6), 1657–1674. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01091.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia Coll, C. (1990). Developmental outcomes of minority infants: A process-oriented look into our beginnings. Child Development, 61, 270–289. doi:10.2307/1131094.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia Coll, C., Lamberty, G., Jenkins, R., McAdoo, H. P., Crnic, K., Wasik, B. H., & Garcia, H. V. (1996). An integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children. Child Development, 67, 1891–1914. doi:10.2307/1131600.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia Coll, C., & Magnuson, K. (1999). Theory and research with children of color. In H. E. Fitzgerald, B. M. Lester, & B. S. Zuckerman (Eds.), Children of color: Research, health and policy issues (pp. 219–255). New York: Garland Publishing Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glikman, H. (2004). Low-income young fathers: Contexts, connections, and self. Social Work, 49(2), 195–206.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, T. L., McLanahan, S., & Thomson, E. (1997). Economic resources, parental practices, and children’s well-being. In G. Duncan, & J. Brooks-Gunn (Eds.), Consequences of growing up poor (pp. 190–238). New York: Russel Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harknett, K., & Knab, J. (2007). More kin and less support: Multipartnered fertility and perceived support among mothers. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69, 237–253. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2006.00356.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, A. O., Wilson, M. N., Pine, C. J., Chan, S. Q., & Buriel, R. (1990). Family ecologies of ethnic minority children. Child Development, 61, 347–362. doi:10.2307/1131097.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hashima, P. Y., & Amato, P. R. (1994). Poverty, social support and parental behavior. Child Development, 65, 394–403. doi:10.2307/1131391.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoff, E., Laursen, B, & Tardif, T. (2002). Socioeconomic status and parenting. In M. H. Borenstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting (vol. 2, pp. 231–252). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hossain, Z., Field, T., Pickens, J., Malphurs, J., & Del Valle, C. (1997). Fathers’ caregiving in low-income African-American and Hispanic-American families. Early Development and Parenting, 6(2), 73–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter, A. G. (1997). Counting on grandmothers: Black mothers’ and fathers’ reliance on grandmothers for parenting support. Journal of Family Issues, 18(3), 251–264. doi:10.1177/019251397018003002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter, A. G., & Taylor, R. J. (1998). Grandparenthood in African American Families. In M. E. Szinovacz (Ed.), Handbook on Grandparenthood (pp. 70–86). Westport, CT: Greenwood.

  • Isley, S. L., O’Neil, R., Clatfelter, D., & Parke, R. D. (1999). Parent and child expressed affect and children’s social competence: Modeling direct and indirect pathways. Developmental Psychology, 35, 547–560.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, A. P., Brooks-Gunn, J., Huang, C., & Glassman, M. (2000). Single mothers in low-wage jobs: Financial strain, parenting, and preschoolers’ outcomes. Child Development, 71(5), 1409–1413. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00236.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jarrett, R. L., & Burton, L. M. (1999). Dynamic dimensions of family structure in low-income African American families: Emergent themes in qualitative research. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 30(2), 177–189.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jayakody, R., & Kalil, A. (2002). Social fathering in low-income, African American families with preschool children. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 504–516. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00504.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, D. J., Forehand, R., Dorsey, S., Foster, S., & Brody, G. (2005). Coparent support and conflict in African American single mother-headed families: Associations with maternal and child psychosocial functioning. Journal of Family Violence, 20(3), 141–150. doi:10.1007/s10896-005-3650-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, D. J., Zalot, A. A., Foster, S. E., Sterrett, E., & Chester, C. (2007). A review of childrearing in African American single mother families: The relevance of a coparenting framework. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 16, 671–683. doi:10.1007/s10826-006-9115-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, D. (2000). Disentangling poverty and race. Applied Developmental Science, 4(1), 55–67. doi:10.1207/S1532480XADS04Suppl_7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaczynski, K. J., Lindahl, K. M., Malik, N. M., & Laurenceau, J. P. (2006). Marital conflict, maternal and paternal parenting, and child adjustment: A test of mediation and moderation. Journal of Family Psychology, 20(2), 199–208. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.20.2.199.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keller, T. E., Catalano, R. F., Haggerty, K. P., & Fleming, C. P. (2002). Parent figure transitions and delinquency and drug use among early adolescent children of substance abusers. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 28(3), 399–427. doi:10.1081/ADA-120006734.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, K., & Forehand, R. (2000). Family processes as resources for African American children exposed to a constellation of sociodemographic risk factors. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29(1), 53–65. doi:10.1207/S15374424jccp2901_6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kotchick, B. A., Dorsey, S., & Heller, L. (2005). Predictors of parenting among African American single mothers: Personal and contextual factors. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67, 448–460. doi:10.1111/j.0022-2445.2005.00127.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Linver, M. R., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Kohen, D. E. (2002). Family processes as pathways from income to young children’s development. Developmental Psychology, 38(5), 719–734. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.38.5.719.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lyons-Ruth, K., Easterbrooks, M. A., & Cibelli, C. D. (1997). Infant attachment strategies, infant mental health and maternal depressive symptoms: Predictors of internalizing and externalizing symptoms at age 7. Developmental Psychology, 33(4), 681–692. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.33.4.681.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Magnuson, K. A., & Duncan, G. J. (2002). Parents in poverty. In M. H. Borenstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting (vol. 4, pp. 95–121). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Magnusson, D., & Cairns, R. B. (1996). Developmental science: Toward a unified framework. In R. B. Cairns, G. H. Elder, & E. J. Costello (Eds.), Developmental science (pp. 7–30). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manning, W. D. (2004). Children and the stability of cohabiting couples. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66, 674–689. doi:10.1111/j.0022-2445.2004.00046.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manning, W. D., Smock, P. J., & Debarun, M. (2004). The relative stability and instability of cohabiting and marital unions for children. Population Research and Policy Review, 23, 135–159. doi:10.1023/B:POPU.0000019916.29156.a7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martinez, C. R., & Forgatch, M. S. (2002). Adjusting to change: Linking family structure transitions with parenitng and boys’ adjustment. Journal of Family Psychology, 16, 107–117. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.16.2.107.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., & Obradovic, J. (2006). Competence and resilience in development. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 13–27. doi:10.1196/annals.1376.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McAdoo, H. P. (1999). Diverse children of color. In H. E. Fitzgerald, B. M. Lester, & B. S. Zuckerman (Eds.), Children of color: Research, health and policy issues (pp. 205–217). New York: Garland Publishing Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLeod, J. D., & Nonnemaker, J. M. (2000). Poverty and child emotional and behavioral problems: Racial/ethnic differences in processes and effects. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 41, 137–161. doi:10.2307/2676302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McLeod, J. D., & Shanahan, M. J. (1993). Poverty, parenting, and children’s mental health. American Sociological Review, 58(3), 351–366. doi:10.2307/2095905.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McLoyd, V. C. (1990). The impact of economic hardship on black families and children: Psychological distress, parenting and socioemotional development. Child Development, 61, 311–346. doi:10.2307/1131096.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLoyd, V. C. (1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychologist, 53(2), 185–204. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.53.2.185.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLoyd, V. C., Aikens, N. L., & Burton, L. M. (2006). Child poverty, policy and practice. In W. Damon, R. M. Lerner, K. A. Renninger, & I. E. Sigel (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol 4, child psychology in practice (6th ed., pp. 700–775). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLoyd, V. C., Cauce, A. M., Takeuchi, D., & Wilson, L. (2000). Marital processes and parental socialization in families of color: A decade review of research. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 1070–1093. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.01070.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McLoyd, V. C., & Ceballo, R. (1998). Conceptualizing and assessing economic context: Issues in the study of race, child development. In V. C. McLoyd, & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Studying minority adolescents (pp. 251–278). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLoyd, V. C., Hill, N., & Dodge, K. (2005). Emerging issues in the study of African American family life. In V. C. McLoyd, N. Hill, & K. Dodge (Eds.), African American family life: Ecological and cultural diversity (pp. 3–20). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLoyd, V. C., Jayaratne, T. E., Ceballo, R., & Borquez, J. (1994). Unemployment and work interruption among African American single mothers: Effects on parents and adolescent socioemotional functioning. Child Development, 5, 52–589.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLoyd, V. C., & Smith, J. (2002). Physical discipline and behavior problems in African American, European American and Hispanic children: Emotional support as a moderator. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 40–53. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00040.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Minuchin, P. (1985). Families and individual development: Provocations from the field of family therapy. Child Development, 56, 289–302. doi:10.2307/1129720.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mistry, R. S., Biesanz, J. C., Taylor, L. C., Burchinal, M., & Cox, M. J. (2004). Family income and its relation to preschool children’s adjustment for families in the NICHD study of early child care. Developmental Psychology, 40(5), 727–745. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.5.727.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mistry, R. S., Vandewater, E. A., Huston, A. C., & McLoyd, V. C. (2002). Economic well-being and children’s social adjustment: The role of family process in an ethnically diverse low-income sample. Child Development, 73(3), 935–951. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00448.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, M. R., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2002). Adolescent parenthood. In M. H. Borenstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting (vol. 3, pp. 173–214). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murry, V. M., Brody, G. H., Brown, A., Wisenbaker, J., Cutrona, C., & Simons, R. L. (2002). Linking employment status, maternal psychological well-being, parenting, and children’s attributions about poverty in families receiving government assistance. Family Relations, 51, 112–120. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2002.00112.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murry, V., Bynum, M., Bordy, G., Wilert, A., & Stephens, D. (2001). African-American single mothers and children in context: A review of studies on risk and resilience. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 4, 133–155. doi:10.1023/A:1011381114782.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Najman, J. M., Behrens, B. C., Anderen, M., Bor, W., O’Callaghan, M., & Williams, G. (1997). Impact of family type and family quality on child behavior problems. Journal of the American Academy on Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1357–1365. doi:10.1097/00004583-199710000-00017.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Center for Children in Poverty (2008). Basic facts about low-income children. Available: http://www.nccp.org/publications/pub_678.html. Accessed 4 Feb 2008.

  • Nelson, M. K. (2000). Single mothers and social support: The commitment to, and retreat from, reciprocity. Qualitative Sociology, 23(3), 291–316. doi:10.1023/A:1005567910606.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, M. K. (2006). Single mothers “do” family. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68, 781–795. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2006.00292.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2004). Fathers’ and mothers’ parenting behavior and beliefs as predictors of children’s social adjustment in the transition to school. Journal of Family Psychology, 18(4), 628–638. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.18.4.628.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2005). Duration and developmental timing of poverty and children’s cognitive and social development from birth through third grade. Child Development, 76(4), 795–810. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00878.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orthner, D. K., Jones-Sanpei, H., & Williamson, S. (2004). The resilience and strengths of low-income families. Family Relations, 53, 159–167. doi:10.1111/j.0022-2445.2004.00006.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Osborne, C. (2005). Marriage following the birth of a child among cohabiting and visiting parents. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67(1), 14–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parke, R. D., Coltrane, S., Duffy, S., Buriel, R., Dennis, J., Powers, J., French, S., & Widaman, K. (2004). Economic stress, parenting, and child adjustment in Mexican American and European American families. Child Development, 75(6), 1632–1656.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, D. L. (1997). Adolescent mothering: Child–grandmother attachment. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 12(4), 228–237. doi:10.1016/S0882-5963(97)80006-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pearson, J. L., Hunter, A. G., Ensminger, M. E., & Kellam, S. G. (1990). Black grandmothers in multigenerational households: Diversity in family structure and parenting involvement in the Woodlawn community. Child Development, 61(2), 434–442. doi:10.2307/1131105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petterson, S. M., & Albers, A. B. (2001). Effects of poverty and maternal depression on early childhood development. Child Development, 72(6), 1794–1813. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00379.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raikes, H. A., & Thompson, R. A. (2005). Efficacy and social support as predictors of parenting stress among families in poverty. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26(3), 177–190. doi:10.1002/imhj.20044.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raley, R. K., & Wildsmith, E. (2004). Cohabitation and children’s family instability. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66(1), 210–219. doi:10.1111/j.0022-2445.2004.00015.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roditti, M. G. (2005). Understanding communities of neglectful parents: Child caregiving networks and child neglect. Child Welfare Journal, 84(2), 277–298.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roosa, M. W., Deng, S., Ryu, E., Lockhart, G., & Burrel, J. Y. (2005). Measures for studying poverty in family and child research. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67(4), 971–988. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2005.00188.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosman, E. A., & Yoshikawa, H. (2001). Effects of welfare reform on children of adolescent mothers: Moderation by maternal depression, father involvement, and grandmother involvement. Women & Health, 32(3), 253–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., Martin, A., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2006). Is one parent good enough? Patterns of mother and father parenting and child cognitive outcomes at 24 and 36 months. Parenting: Science and Practice, 6, 211–228. doi:10.1207/s15327922par0602&3_5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seccombe, K. (2000). Family in poverty in the 1990s: Trends, causes, consequences, and lessons learned. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 1094–1113. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.01094.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shannon, J. D., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., London, K., & Cabrera, N. (2002). Beyond rough and tumble: Low-income fathers’ interactions and children’s cognitive development at 24 months. Parenting: Science and Practice, 2(2), 77–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, P. K., & Drew, L. (2002). Grandparenthood. In M. H. Borenstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting (vol. 3, pp. 141–172). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sroufe, L. A. (2000). Early relationships and the development of children. Infant Mental Health Journal, 21, 67–74. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0355(200001/04)21:1/2<67::AID-IMHJ8>3.0.CO;2-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. & Cabrera, N. (2002). Cross-disciplinary challenges to the study of father involvement. In C. S. Tamis-LeMonda & N. Cabrera (Eds.), Handbook of Father Involvement (pp. 599–620). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tamis-Lemonda, C., Shannon, J. D., Cabrera, N., & Lamb, M. (2004). Fathers and mothers at play with their 2-year-olds: Contributions to language and cognitive development. Child Development, 75, 1806–1820.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, R. A. (2000). The legacy of early attachments. Child Development, 71, 145–152. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00128.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tracy, E. M., & Abell, N. (1994). Social network map: Some further refinements on administration. Social Work Research, 18(1), 56–60.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yeung, W. J., Linver, M. R., Brooks-Gunn, J. (2002). How money matters for young children’s development: Parental investment and family processes. Child Development, 83, 1861–1879. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.t01-1-00511.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, W. J. (1996). When work disappears. New York: Knopf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu, L. L., & Martinson, B. C. (1993). Family structure and the risk of pre-marital birth. American Sociological Review, 58, 210–232. doi:10.2307/2095967.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, L. L., & Thomson, E. (2001). Race differences in family experiences and early sexual initiation: Dynamic models of family structure and family change. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 682–696. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00682.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Melissa A. Barnett.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Barnett, M.A. Economic Disadvantage in Complex Family Systems: Expansion of Family Stress Models. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 11, 145–161 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-008-0034-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-008-0034-z

Keywords

Navigation