Abstract
Utilizing relevance theory, this study investigated the ability of children with Asperger syndrome (AS) and high-functioning autism (HFA) to use context when answering questions and when giving explanations for their correct answers. Three groups participated in this study: younger AS/HFA group (age 7–9, n = 16), older AS/HFA group (age 10–12, n = 23) and a normally functioning control group (age 7–9, n = 23). The results indicated that the younger AS/HFA group did less well when answering contextually demanding questions compared to the control group, and the performance of the older AS/HFA group fell in between the younger AS/HFA group and the control group. Both AS/HFA groups had difficulties explaining their correct answers, suggesting that they are not always aware of how they have derived answers from the context.
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Acknowledgments
We want to thank Professor Pirjo Korpilahti, Professor Matti Lehtihalmes, chief psychologist Terttu Tapio, PhD Sari Kunnari, PhD Eira Jansson-Verkasalo, speech therapist Kati Tauriainen, speech therapist Sirpa Sakko and statistician Risto Bloigu for their comments and help with this study. We are grateful for children and their parents who participated in this study. This study was supported by Helsingin Sanomat Centennial Foundation, Finland, Finnish Cultural Foundation, Finnish Association of Speech Therapists, Päivikki and Sakari Sohlberg Foundation, Finland, the Child Psychiatric Research Foundation, Finland, The Rinnekoti Research Foundation, Espoo, Finland, the Alma and K. A. Snellman Foundation, Oulu, Finland and The National Alliance for Autism Research (NAAR) grant of Professor David Pauls from Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, USA.
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Appendix
Appendix
Examples of Different Types of Questions
The children’s answers have been translated literally from Finnish to English (note: Finnish is a pro-drop language).
An Example of a Reference Assignment Question
Best clothes
Description of the picture:
There is a mother and a girl in the picture. The girl has a dress on and she is running. There are muddy puddles on the road. The girl has just stepped in the puddle and the picture shows the mud splashing.
Verbal information and the question:
The girl with her best clothes on is running on the dirty road. Who is running on the road?
An example of a correct answer (almost all children gave this answer):
“A girl.”
An Example of an Enrichment Question
Waking up
Description of the picture:
The picture shows a bedroom with two beds and two children. The children are getting out of their beds. They have pushed their covers off. They have pyjamas on.
Verbal information and the question:
The children are waking up.
What time might it be?
An example of a correct answer (almost all correct answers of children were similar to this):
“Morning”
An example of an incorrect answer (7-year-old boy with AS):
“Noon”
An Example of a Basic Implicature Question
Rain
Description of the picture:
The picture shows a village, there are two ice-cream kiosks and a church. It is raining. There are cars driving on the road and cyclists are cycling along a path. A boy is walking and holding a book over his head. There are two girls, one with an umbrella and one with a raincoat (the hood is up).
Verbal information and the question:
Here is a picture of a village on a rainy day. There are many cars driving on the road. A boy is walking over the zebra crossing. (point to the boy)
Why is the boy holding a book over his head? (basic question)
An example of a correct answer and explanation (normally developing 7-year-old girl):
“So he does not get wet”.
How do you know that?
“His book works as an umbrella.”
An example of a correct answer and explanation (11-year-old girl with AS):
“He tries to protect himself from rain, of course.”
How do you know that?
“Because nobody wants to get wet. When it rains people do anything that they don’t get wet.”
An example of an incorrect answer (11-year-old girl with AS):
“He returns it to the library.”
An Example of a Feeling Question
In the park
Description of the picture:
Children are playing on the playground where there is a swing, a slide, a sandpit, and a climbing frame. One boy is crying. He is laying on the ground in front of the swing holding his knee. The swing is still swinging back and forth.
Verbal information and the question:
The children are on the playground. There is a boy in front of the swing.
How does the boy feel?
An example of a correct answer and explanation (normally developing 9-year-old boy):
“Miserable”
How do you know that?
“He is in pain.”
An example of a correct answer and explanation (11-year-old girl with AS):
“Bad”
How do you know that?
“Because he has fallen from the swing.”
An example of an incorrect answer (7-year-old boy with AS):
“Fun. At least I think that it is fun to jump from the swing.”
An Example of a Routine Question
In the garden
Description of the picture:
A girl and a boy are playing in the garden. There are a lot of children’s toys lying on the ground. Their mother is calling them from the window.
Verbal information and the question:
Children are playing in the garden. A boy has a ball in his hand. A mother shouts to the children: “Dinner will be ready soon.”
What does the mother mean? (routine question)
An example of a correct answer and explanation (normally developing 9-year-old boy):
“They have to come to eat.”
How do you know that?
“Because she shouted that food is ready which means that they have to go to eat.”
An example of a correct answer and explanation (11-year-old boy with HFA):
“That they have to come inside to eat soon.”
How do you know that?
“It is so stupid that everybody always shouts to children that dinner will be ready soon when they want that they come inside and eat.”
An example of an incorrect answer (10-year-old girl with AS):
“It is impossible to know.”
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Loukusa, S., Leinonen, E., Kuusikko, S. et al. Use of Context in Pragmatic Language Comprehension by Children with Asperger Syndrome or High-Functioning Autism. J Autism Dev Disord 37, 1049–1059 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0247-2
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0247-2