Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Heterogeneity in ADHD: Neuropsychological Pathways, Comorbidity and Symptom Domains

  • Published:
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The aim of the present study was to investigate different neuropsychological impairments and comorbid behavioral problems in relation to symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), studying the independent effects of different functions as well as specific relations to symptoms of hyperactivity/impulsivity and inattention. A community-based sample of school children (n = 182; the higher end of the ADHD symptom range was oversampled) completed neuropsychological tasks designed to measure executive function (EF), state regulation and delay aversion. Behavioral symptoms were measured through parental and teacher ratings of the DSM-IV criteria for ADHD and Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). Both categorical and dimensional analyses were used to acquire a deeper understanding of ADHD. The results supported the notion that EF and state regulation constitute independent pathways to ADHD, primarily to symptoms of inattention. In addition, the present study points to the importance of viewing ADHD as a heterogeneous condition also with regard to the differential impact of neuropsychological functioning and comorbidity on different ADHD symptom groups and the two ADHD symptom domains.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alderson, R. M., Rapport, M. D., & Kofler, M. J. (2007). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and behavioral inhibition: a meta-analytic review of the stop-signal paradigm. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 745–758.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (1997). ADHD and the nature of self-control. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (1998). Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (2ndnd ed.). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauermeister, J. J., Shrout, P. E., Ramirez, R., Bravo, M., Alegria, M., Martinez-Taboas, A., et al. (2007). ADHD Correlates, comorbidity, and impairment in community and treated samples of children and adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 883–898. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9141-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berlin, L., & Bohlin, G. (2002). Response inhibition, hyperactivity and conduct problems among preschool children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31, 242–251.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berlin, L., Bohlin, G., Nyberg, L., & Janols, L.-O. (2004). How well do measures of inhibition and other executive functions discriminate between children with ADHD and controls? Child Neuropsychology, 1, 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berwid, O. G., Curko Kera, E. A., Marks, D. J., Santra, A., Bender, H. A., & Halperin, J. M. (2005). Sustained attention and response inhibition in young children at risk for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 46, 1219–1229. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.00417.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman, J. (2005). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a selective overview. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1215–1220. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.10.020.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bitsakou, P., Psychogiou, L., Thompson, M., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2008). Inhibitory deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder are independent of basic processing efficiency and IQ. Journal of Neural Transmission, 115, 261–268. doi:10.1007/s00702-007-0828-z.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brocki, K. C., & Bohlin, G. (2006). Developmental change in the relation between executive functions and symptoms of ADHD and co-occurring behaviour problems. Infant and Child Development, 15, 19–40. doi:10.1002/icd.413.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brocki, K. C., Nyberg, L., Thorell, L. B., & Bohlin, G. (2007). Early concurrent and longitudinal symptoms of ADHD and ODD: relations to different types of inhibitory control and working memory. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 48, 1033–1041. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01811.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos, F. X., & Tannock, R. (2002). Neuroscience of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the search for endophenotypes. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 3, 617–628.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos, F. X., Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Milham, M. P., & Tannock, R. (2006). Characterizing cognition in ADHD: beyond executive dysfunction. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10, 117–123. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2006.01.011.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, L. A., Welsh, A. H., & Chan, W. (2001). Estimators for the linear regression model based on Winsorized observations. Statistica Sinica, 11, 147–172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chhabildas, N. A., Pennington, B. F., & Willcutt, E. G. (2001). A comparison of the cognitive deficit in the DSM-IV subtypes of ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 9, 28–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, S. D., Kohn, M. R., Hermens, D. F., Rabbinge, M., Clark, C. R., Gordon, E., & Williams, L. M. (2007). Distinguishing symptom profiles in adolescent ADHD using an objective cognitive test battery. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 19, 355–367.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2ndnd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dalen, L., Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Hall, M., & Remington, B. (2004). Inhibitory deficits, delay aversion and preschool AD/HD: implications for the dual pathway model. Neural Plasticity, 11, 1–11. doi:10.1155/NP.2004.1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DuPaul, G. J., Power, T. J., Anastopoulos, A. D., & Reid, R. (1998). ADHD rating Scale IV. Checklists, norms, and clinical interpretation. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Epstein, J. N., Erkanli, A., Conners, C. K., Klaric, J., Costello, J. E., & Angold, A. (2003). Relations between continuous performance test performance measures and ADHD behaviors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 543–554. doi:10.1023/A:1025405216339.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone, S. V., Biederman, J., Weber, W., & Russell, R. L. (1998). Psychiatric, neuropsychological, and psychosocial features of DSM-IV subtypes of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: results from a clinically reffered sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 185–193.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, N. P., Haberstick, B. C., Willcutt, E. G., Miyake, A., Young, S. E., Corley, R. P., & Hewitt, J. K. (2007). Greater attention problems during childhood predict poorer executive functioning in late adolescence. Psychological Science, 18, 893–900. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01997.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gaub, M., & Carlson, C. L. (1997). Behavioral characteristics of DSM-IV ADHD subtypes in a school-based population. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25, 103–111. doi:10.1023/A:1025775311259.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gerstadt, C. L., Hong, Y. J., & Diamond, A. (1994). The relationship between cognition and action: performance of children 3 1/2–7 years old on a Stroop-like day-night test. Cognition, 53, 129–153. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(94)90068-X.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geurts, H. M., Verté, S., Oosterlaan, J., Roeyers, H., & Sergeant, J. A. (2005). ADHD subtypes: do they differ in their executive functioning profile? Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20, 457–477. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2004.11.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Groth-Marnat, G. (1997). Handbook of psychological assessment (3rdrd ed.). New York: Wiley and Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henricsson, X., & Rydell, A.-M. (2006). Children with behavior problems: Development during the first 6 years of school. Infant and Child Development, 15, 347–366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huang-Pollock, C. L., Mikami, A. Y., Pfiffner, L., & McBurnett, K. (2007). ADHD subtype differences in motivational respnsivity but not inhibitory control: evidence from a reward-based variation of the stop signal paradigm. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36, 127–136.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, K. A., Kelly, S. P., Bellgrove, M. A., Barry, E., Cox, M., Gill, M., & Robertson, I. H. (2007). Response variability in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: evidence for neuropsychological heterogeneity. Neuropsychologia, 45, 630–638. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.03.034.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kalff, A. C., De Sonneville, L. M. J., Hurks, P. P. M., Hendriksen, J. G. M., Kroes, M., Feron, F. J. M., Steyaert, J., et al. (2005). Speed, speed variability, and accuracy of information processing in 5 to 6 year-old children at risk of ADHD. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 11, 173–183. doi:10.1017/S1355617705050216.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, C., Wendling, K., Huettner, P., Ruder, H., & Peper, M. (2006). Intra-subject variability in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 60, 1088–1097. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.04.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kraemer, H. C., Noda, A., & O’Hara, R. (2004). Categorical versus dimensional approaches to diagnosis: methodological challenges. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 38, 17–25. doi:10.1016/S0022-3956(03)00097-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuntsi, J., Oosterlaan, J., & Stevenson, J. (2001). Psychological mechanisms in hyperactivity: I response inhibition deficit, working memory impairment, delay aversion, or something else? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 42, 199–210. doi:10.1017/S0021963001006709.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuntsi, J., Andreou, P., Ma, J., Börger, N. A., & Van der Meere, J. J. (2005). Testing assumptions for endophenotype studies in ADHD: Reliability and validity of tasks in a general population sample. BMC Psychiatry, 5, 40. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-5-40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levy, F., Hay, D. A., McStephen, M., Wood, C., & Waldman, I. (1997). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a category or a continuum? Genetic analysis of a large-scale twin study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 737–744. doi:10.1097/00004583-199706000-00009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lijffijt, M., Kenemans, J. L., Verbaten, M. N., & van Engeland, H. (2005). A meta-analytic review of stopping performance in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: deficient inhibitory motor control? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 2, 216–222. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.114.2.216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malmberg, M., Rydell, A.-M., & Smedje, H. (2003). Validity of the Swedish version of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ-Swe). Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 57, 357–363. doi:10.1080/08039480310002697.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martinussen, R., Hayden, J., Hogg-Johnson, S., & Tannock, R. (2005). A meta-analysis of working memory impairments in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 377–384. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000153228.72591.73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martell, M., Nikolas, M., & Nigg, J. T. (2007). Executive function in adolescents with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 1437–1444. doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e31814cf953.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Massetti, G. M., Lahey, B. B., Pelham, W. E., Loney, J., Ehrhardt, A., Lee, S. S., & Kipp, H. (2008). Academic achievement over 8 years among children who met modified criteria for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder at 4-6 years of age. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 399–410. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9186-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McInerney, R. J., Hrabok, M., & Kerns, K. A. (2005). The children’s size-ordering task: a new measure of nonverbal working memory. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 27, 735–745. doi:10.1081/13803390490918633.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nassauer, K. W., & Halperin, J. M. (2003). Dissociation of perceptual and motor inhibition processes through the use of novel computerized conflict tasks. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 9, 25–30. doi:10.1017/S1355617703910034.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T. (2006). What Causes ADHD? Understanding What Goes Wrong and Why. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T., Willcut, E. G., Doyle, A. E., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2005). Causal heterogeneity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: do we need neuropsychologically impaired subtypes? Biological Psychiatry, 57, 224–1230. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.08.025.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nyberg, L., Bohlin, G., Berlin, L., & Janols, L.-O. (2003). Differentiating type a behaviour and hyperactivity using observed motivation during a reaction time task. Infant and Child Development, 12, 145–158. doi:10.1002/icd.270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nyberg, L., Bohlin, G., & Hagekull, B. (2004). Assessing type A behavior in children: a longitudinal exploration of the overlap between type A behavior and hyperactivity. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 45, 145–156. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2004.00389.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pasini, A., Paloscia, C., Alessandrelli, R., Porfirio, M. C., & Curatolo, P. (2007). Attention and executive functions profile in drug naive ADHD subtypes. Brain & Development, 29, 400–408. doi:10.1016/j.braindev.2006.11.010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Power, T. J., Costigan, T. E., Eiraldi, R. B., & Stephen, S. L. (2004). Variations in anxiety and depression as a function of ADHD subtypes defined by DSM-IV: do subtype differences exist or not? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32, 27–37. doi:10.1023/B:JACP.0000007578.30863.93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rabiner, D., & Coie, J. D. (2000). Early attention problems and children’s reading achievement: a longitudinal investigation. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 859–867. doi:10.1097/00004583-200007000-00014.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schatz, D. B., & Rostain, A. L. (2006). ADHD with comorbid anxiety a review of the current litterature. Journal of Attention Disorders, 10, 141–149. doi:10.1177/1087054706286698.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheres, A., Dijkstra, M., Ainslie, E., Balkan, J., Reynolds, B., Sonuga-Barke, E., & Castellanos, F. X. (2006). Temporal and probabilistic discounting of rewards in children and adolescents: effects of age and ADHD symptoms. Neuropsychologia, 44, 2092–2103. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.10.012.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheres, A., & Sumiya, L. M. (2008). Temporal reward discounting and ADHD: task and symptom specific effects. Journal of Neural Transmission, 115, 221–226. doi:10.1007/s00702-007-0813-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sergeant, J. (2000). The cognitive-energetic model: an empirical approach to attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 24, 7–12. doi:10.1016/S0149-7634(99)00060-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sergeant, J. A. (2005). Modeling attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a critical appraisal of the cognitive-energetic model. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1248–1255. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.09.010.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sergeant, J. A., Geurts, H., Huijbregts, S., Scheres, A., & Oosterlaan, J. (2003). The top and the bottom of ADHD: a neuropsychological perspective. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 27, 583–592. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2003.08.004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simpson, A., & Riggs, K. J. (2005). Factors responsible for performance on the day-night task: response set or semantics? Developmental Science, 8(4), 360–371. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2005.00424.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Solanto, M. V., Abikoff, H., Sonuga-Barke, E., Schachar, R., Logan, G. D., Wigal, T., et al. (2001). The ecological validity of delay aversion and response inhibition as measures of impulsivity in AD/HD: a supplement to the nimh multimodal treatment study of AD/HD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 215–228. doi:10.1023/A:1010329714819.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Solanto, M. V., Gilbert, S. N., Raj, A., Zhu, J., Pope-Boyd, S., Stepak, B., Vail, L., & Newcorn, J. H. (2007). Neurocognitive functioning in AD/HD, Predominantly inattentive and combined subtypes. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 729–744. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9123-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2003). The dual pathway model of AD/HD: An elaboration of neuro-developmental characteristics. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 27, 593–604. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2003.08.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2005). Causal models of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: from common simple deficits to multiple developmental pathways. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1231–1238. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.09.008.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Taylor, E., Sembi, S., & Smith, J. (1992). Hyperactivity and delay aversion I: The effect of delay on choice. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 33, 387–398. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1992.tb00874.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Dalen, L., & Remington, B. (2003). Do executive deficits and delay aversion make independent contributions to preschool attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 1335–1342. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000087564.34977.21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Sergeant, J. A., Nigg, J., & Willcutt, E. (2008). Executive dysfunction and delay aversion in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: nosologic and diagnostic implications. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 17, 367–384. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2007.11.008.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643–662. doi:10.1037/h0054651.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Experimental designs using ANOVA. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Brooks/Cole, cop.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorell, L. B. (2007). Do delay aversion and executive function deficits make distinct contributions to the functional impact of ADHD symptoms? A study of early academic skill deficits. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 48, 1061–1070. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01777.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thorell, L. B., & Wåhlstedt, C. (2006). Executive functioning deficits in relation to symptoms of ADHD and/or ODD in preschool children. Infant and Child Development, 15, 503–518. doi:10.1002/icd.475.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trommer, B. L., Hoeppner, J.-A. B., Lorber, R., & Armstrong, K. (1988). The go/no-go paradigm in attention deficit disorder. Annals of Neurology, 24, 610–614. doi:10.1002/ana.410240504.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tucha, L., Tucha, O., Laufkötter, R., Walitza, S., Klein, H. E., & Lange, K. W. (2008). Neuropsychological assessment of attention in adults with different subtypes of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Neural Transmission, 115, 269–278. doi:10.1007/s00702-007-0836-z.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van der Meere, J., Marzocchi, G. M., & De Meo, T. (2005). Response inhibition and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with and without oppositional defiant disorder screened from a community sample. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28, 459–472. doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2801_1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1991). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (3rd ed.) (Psykologiförlaget AB, Stockholm, Trans.) New York: Psychological Corporation.

  • Welsh, M. C. (2002). Developmental and clinical variations in executive functions. In D. L. Molfese, & V. J. Molfese (Ed.), Developmental variations in learning: Applications to social, executive function, language, and reading skills (pp. 139–185). Mahawah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willcut, E. G., Doyle, A. E., Nigg, J. T., Faraone, S. V., & Pennington, B. F. (2005a). Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1336–1346. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willcutt, E. G., Brodsky, K., Chhabildas, N., Shanahan, M., Yerys, B., Scott, A., & Pennington, B. F. (2005b). The neuropsychology of ADHD: validity of the executive function hypothesis. In Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: From Genes to Patients (pp. 185–213). Totowa, NJ: Human.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, P.O. Box 1225, SE-751 42, Uppsala, Sweden

    Cecilia Wåhlstedt, Lisa B. Thorell & Gunilla Bohlin

  2. Stockholm Brain Institute, Stockholm, Sweden

    Lisa B. Thorell

Authors
  1. Cecilia Wåhlstedt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Lisa B. Thorell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Gunilla Bohlin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Cecilia Wåhlstedt.

Additional information

This study was supported by a grant from The Bank of Sweden Tercentenary Foundation The present manuscript contains unpublished work that is not currently under consideration for publication elsewhere. There is no conflict of interest and this study has been designed in accordance with the ethics rules of the Swedish Research Council.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Wåhlstedt, C., Thorell, L.B. & Bohlin, G. Heterogeneity in ADHD: Neuropsychological Pathways, Comorbidity and Symptom Domains. J Abnorm Child Psychol 37, 551–564 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-008-9286-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-008-9286-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation