Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Efficacy of Integrating Herder Knowledge and Ecological Methods for Monitoring Rangeland Degradation in Northern Kenya

  • Published:
Human Ecology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The world-wide debate on land degradation in arid lands, usually linked to local land use practices, does not reflect methodological advancements in terms of assessments and monitoring that integrate local communities’ knowledge with ecological methods. In this paper, we evaluated the efficacy of three different methods related to herder assessments and monitoring of land degradation; herder knowledge and ecological methods of assessing impacts of livestock grazing along gradients of land use from settlement and joint monitoring of selected marked transects to understand long-term vegetation changes in southwestern Marsabit northern Kenya. The performance of each method was carefully evaluated and interpreted in terms of the indicators used by herders and ecologists. Herder interpretations were then related to ecologists’ empirical analysis of land degradation. The Rendille nomads have a complex understanding of land degradation which combines environmental and livestock productivity indicators, compared to conventional scientific approaches that use plant-based indicators alone. According to the herders, the grazing preference of various livestock species (e.g., grazers versus browsers) influences perceptions of land degradation, suggesting degradation is a relative term. The herders distinguished short-term changes in vegetation cover from long-term changes associated with over-exploitation. They attributed current environmental degradation around pastoral camps, which shift land use between the alternating wet and dry seasons, to year-round grazing. We deduced from long-term observation that herders interpret vegetation changes in terms of rainfall variability, utilitarian values and intensification of land use. Long-term empirical data (23 years) from repeated sampling corroborated herder interpretations. Land degradation was mostly expressed in terms of declines in woody plant species, while spatial and temporal dynamics of herbaceous species reflected the effects of seasonality. The efficacy of the three methods were inferred using explanatory strengths of ecological theory; insightfulness of the methods for describing land degradation and the likelihood of using the methods for promoting local community participation in the implementation of the UN Convention on Combating Desertification (CCD) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. All the grazing landscapes have comparable elevations at <500m a.s.l.

  2. Among the field team, two of the research assistants were involved in the earlier surveys. The assistants were responsible for sampling during the dry season in 2005 and the wet season in 2006.

  3. Voucher samples of the plant species unidentifiable in the field were deposited at the Herbarium of the KARI station in Marsabit.

  4. The terms ‘decreasing’ (used by the herders) and ‘declining’ (used by ecologists) are interchangeable. In both cases, the reference was made to the past benchmark conditions referring to historical knowledge for the herders, and for the ecologists to the IPAL surveys of 1982 in the wet season and 1983 in the dry season.

  5. The after-birth organ is sticky and could collect litter when dropped by livestock at birth. The symbolism for land degradation is that even plant litter cannot be found.

  6. Herders usually use the concept of an animal’s comfort in lying down, as they become restless where the conditions are not suitable. The inference is always made in terms of the conditions of the soils (see Roba and Oba 2008).

  7. Ecologists describe land degradation in terms of soil movements and loss of soil nutients (see Oba et al. 2008c).

  8. The Rendille were blamed for over-exploitation of woody plants. For this reason, the herders did not offer opinions, perhaps reasoning that ‘outsiders’ do not appreciate their use of trees for building fences for protecting their livestock from predation by ‘hyenas.’ The herders used ‘hyenas’ as a generic term for all large predators that kill their livestock. When questioned about their use of trees around pastoral camps, an elder responded “...then would you pay for our goats, [which are eaten by hyenas] if we stopped cutting trees...We have no solution ourselves...”

References

  • Abel, N. O. J., and Blaikie, M. (1989). Land Degradation, Stocking Rates and Conservation Policies in the Communal Rangelands of Botswana and Zimbabwe. Land Degradation and Rehabilitation 1: 101–123. doi:10.1002/ldr.3400010204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arnalds, O., and Archer, S. (2000). Rangeland Desertification. Kluwer, Dordrecht.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bake, G. (1983). An Analysis of Climatological Data from the Marsabit District of Northern Kenya. IPAL, Northern Kenya Technical Report No. B-3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Behnke, R. H., and Scoones, I. (1993). Rethinking range ecology: Implications for rangeland management in Africa. In Behnke, R. H., Scoones, I., and Kerven, C. (eds.), Range Ecology at Disequilibrium, New Models of Natural Variability and Pastoral Adaptation in African Savannas. ODI, London, pp. 1–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berkes, F., Kislalioglu, M., Folke, C., and Gadgil, M. (1998). Exploring the Basic Ecological Unit: Ecosystem-like Concepts in Traditional Societies. Ecosystems 1: 409–415. doi:10.1007/s100219900034.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Binns, T. (1990). Is Desertification a Myth? Geography 75: 106–113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biot, Y. (1993). How long can high stocking densities be sustained? In Behnke, R. H., Scoones, I., and Kervien, C. (eds.), Range Ecology at Disequilibrium. New Models of Natural Variability and Pastoral Adaptation in African Savannas. ODI, London, pp. 153–172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bollig, M., and Schulte, A. (1999). Environmental Change and Pastoral Perceptions: Degradation and Indigenous Knowledge in Two African Pastoral Communities. Human Ecology 27: 493–514. doi:10.1023/A:1018783725398.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • CSU (1970). Wildland Ecology Handbook. CSU, Ft. Collins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dahlberg, A. C. (2000). Interpretations of Environmental Changes and Diversity: A Critical Approach to Indications of Degradation—The Case of Kalamate, North West Botswana. Land Degradation and Development 11: 549–562. doi:10.1002/1099-145X(200011/12)11:6<549::AID-LDR413>3.0.CO;2-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, D. K. (2005). Indigenous Knowledge and the Desertification Debate: Problematising Expert Knowledge in North Africa. Geoforum 36: 509–524. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2004.08.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dollan, R. (1980). Migration Patterns in the Rendille, 1923–1978. Proceedings of a Scientific Seminar, Nairobi, 24–27 November 1980. IPAL Technical Report Number A-3.

  • Ellis, J. E., and Swift, D. M. (1988). Stability of African Pastoral Ecosystems: Alternate Paradigms and Implications for Development. Journal of Range Management 41: 450–459. doi:10.2307/3899515.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fernendez-Gimenez, M. A. (2000). The Role of Mongolian Nomadic Pastoralists’ Ecological Knowledge in Rangeland Management. Ecological Application 10: 1318–1326. doi:10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[1318:TROMNP]2.0.CO;2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fraser, E. D. G., Dougill, A. J., Mabee, W., Reed, M. S., and McAlpine, P. (2006). Bottom-up and Top-down: Analysis of Participatory Processes for Sustainability Indicator Identification as a Pathway to Community Empowerment and Sustainable Environmental Management. Journal of Environmental Management 78: 114–127. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2005.04.009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fratkin, E. (1986). Stability and Resilience in East African Pastoralism: The Rendille and the Arial of Northern Kenya. Human Ecology 10: 269–287. doi:10.1007/BF00889031.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fratkin, E. (1991). Surviving Drought and Development. Arial Pastoralists of Northern Kenya. Westview, Boulder.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fratkin, E. (1994). Pastoral Land Tenure in Kenya: Maasai, Samburu, Boran and Rendille Experiences, 1950–1990. Nomadic Peoples 34/35: 55–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fratkin, E., and Roth, E. A. (1990). Drought and Economic Differentiation among Arial Pastoralists of Kenya. Human Ecology 18: 385–402. doi:10.1007/BF00889464.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fynn, R. W. S., and O’Connor, T. G. (2000). Effect of Stocking Rate and Rainfall on Rangeland Dynamics and Cattle Performance in a Semi-arid Savanna, South Africa. Journal of Applied Ecology 37: 491–507. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2664.2000.00513.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geist, H. (2005). The Causes and Progression of Desertification. Ashgate Studies in Environmental Policy and Practice. Ashgate, Aldershot.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gemedo, D., Isselstein, J., and Maass, B. L. (2006). Indigenous Ecological Knowledge of Borana Pastoralists in Southern Ethiopia and Current Challenges. International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 13: 113–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hambly, H. (1996). Introduction. In Hambly, H., and Agura, T. O. (eds.), Grassroots Indicators for Desertification. Experience and Perspectives from Eastern and Southern Africa. IDRC, Ottawa, pp. 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardin, G. (1968). The Tragedy of the Commons. Science 162: 1243–1248. doi:10.1126/science.162.3859.1243.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Havstad, K. M., and Herrick, J. E. (2003). Long-term Ecological Monitoring. Arid Land Research and Managements 17: 389–400. doi:10.1080/713936102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Illius, A. W., and O’Connor, T. G. (1999). On the Relevance of Nonequilibrium Concepts to Arid and Semiarid Grazing Systems. Ecological Applications 9: 798–813. doi:10.1890/1051-0761(1999)009[0798:OTRONC]2.0.CO;2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Illius, A. W., and O’Connor, T. G. (2000). Resource Heterogeneity and Ungulate Population Dynamics. Oikos 89: 283–294. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2000.890209.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kraaij, T., and Milton, S. J. (2006). Vegetation Changes (1995–2004) in Semi-arid Karoo Shrubland, South Africa: Effects of Rainfall, Wild Herbivores and Changes in Land Use. Journal of Arid Environments 64: 174–192. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2005.04.009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krugman, H. (1996). Towards improved indicators to measure desertification and monitor the implementation of the Desertification Convention. In Hambly, H., and Agura, T. O. (eds.), Grassroots Indicators for Desertification. Experiences and Perspectives from Eastern and Southern Africa. IDRC, Ottawa, pp. 20–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamprey, H. F. (1979). Structure and Functioning of the Semi-arid Grazing Land Ecosystem of the Serengeti Region (Tanzania). Tropical Grazing Land Ecosystems. A State of Knowledge Report. UNESCO, Paris, pp. 526–601.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamprey, H. (1983). Pastoralism yesterday and today: The overgrazing problem. In Bourlier, F. (ed.), Tropical Savannas. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamprey, H., and Yussuf, H. (1981). Pastoral and desert encroachment in northern Kenya. Ambio 10: 131–134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lepš, J., and Šmilauer, P. (1999). Multivariate analysis of ecological data. Faculty of Biological Sciences. University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lusigi, W. J. (1981). Combatting Desertification and Rehabilitating Degraded Production Systems in Northern Kenya. IPAL Technical Report A-4. UNESCO, Nairobi.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lusigi, W. J., Nkurunziza, E. R., Awere-Gyekye, K., and Masheti, S. (1986). Range Resource Assessment and Management Strategies for the South-Western Marsabit, Northern Kenya. IPAL Technical Report D-5. UNESCO, Nairobi.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mapinduzi, A. L., Oba, G., Weladji, R. B., and Colman, J. E. (2003). Use of Indigenous Ecological Knowledge of the Maasai Pastoralists for Assessing Rangeland Biodiversity in Tanzania. African Journal of Ecology 41: 329–336. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2003.00479.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McPeak, J. G. (2005). Individual and Collective Rationality in Pastoral Production: Evidence from Northern Kenya. Human Ecology 33: 171–197. doi:10.1007/s10745-005-2431-Y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Niamir-Fuller, M. (1998). The resilience of pastoral herding in Sahelian Africa. In Berkes, F., and Folke, C. (eds.), Linking Social and Ecological Systems. Management Practices and Social Mechanism for Building Resilience. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 250–283.

    Google Scholar 

  • Niamir-Fuller, M. (1999). Managing Mobility on African Rangelands: the Legitimization of Transhumance. IT, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oba, G. (1985a). Local Participation in Guiding Extension Programs: A Practical Proposal. Nomadic Peoples 18: 27–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oba, G. (1985b). Perception of Environment among Kenyan Pastoralists: Implications for Development. Nomadic Peoples 19: 33–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oba, G., and Kaitira, L. M. (2006). Herder Knowledge of Landscape Assessments in Arid Rangelands in Northern Tanzania. Journal of Arid Environments 66: 168–186. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2005.10.020.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oba, G., and Kotile, D. G. (2001). Assessments of Landscape Level Degradation in Southern Ethiopia: Pastoralists Versus Ecologists. Land Degradation and Development 12: 461–475. doi:10.1002/ldr.463.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oba, G., Stenseth, N. C., and Lusigi, W. (2000a). New Perspectives on Sustainable Grazing Management in Arid Zones of Sub-saharan Africa. BioScience 50: 35–51. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2000)050[0035:NPOSGM]2.3.CO;2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oba, G., Post, E., Syvertsen, P. O., and Stenseth, N. C. (2000b). Bush Cover and Range Condition Assessments in Relation to Landscape and Grazing in Southern Ethiopia. Landscape Ecology 15: 535–546. doi:10.1023/A:1008106625096.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oba, G., Weladji, R. B., Lusigi, W. J., and Stenseth, N. C. (2003). Scale-dependent Effects of Grazing on Rangeland Degradation in Northern Kenya: A Test Of Equilibrium and Non-equilibrium Hypotheses. Land Degradation and Development 14: 83–94. doi:10.1002/ldr.524.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oba, G., Sjaastad, E., and Roba, H. G. (2008a). Framework for Participatory Assessments and Implementation of Global Environmental Conventions at the Local Level. Land Degradation and Development 19: 65–76. doi:10.1002/ldr.811.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oba, G., Byakagaba, P., and Angassa, A. (2008b). Participatory Monitoring of Biodiversity in East African Grazing Lands. Land Degradation and Development 19: 636–648. doi:10.1002/ldr.867.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oba, G., Weladji, R. B., Msangameno, D. J., Kaitira, L. M., and Stave, J. (2008c). Scaling Effects of Proximate Desertification Drivers on Soil Nutrients in Northeastern Tanzania. Journal of Arid Environments 72: 1820–1829. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2008.04.009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Okoti, M., Keya, G. A., Esilaba, A. O., and Cheruiyot, H. (2006). Indigenous Technical Knowledge for Resource Monitoring in Northern Kenya. Journal of Human Ecology 20: 3183–189.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Leary, M. F. (1984). Ecological Villains or Economic Victims: the Case of the Rendille of Northern Kenya. Desertification Control Bulletin 11: 17–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Leary, M. F. (1985). Economics of Pastoralism in Northern Kenya: The Rendille and Gabra. Integrated Projects in Arid Lands (IPAL) Technical Report F-3. UNESCO, Nairobi.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pratt, D. J., and Gwynne, M. D. (1977). Rangeland Management and Ecology in East Africa. Hodder and Stoughton, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reed, M. S., and Dougill, A. J. (2002). Participatory Selection Process for Indicators of Rangeland Condition in the Kalahari. The Geographical Journal 168: 224–234. doi:10.1111/1475-4959.00050.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reed, M. S., Dougill, A. J., and Taylor, M. J. (2007). Integrating Local and Scientific Knowledge for Adaptation to Land Degradation: Kalahari Rangeland Management Options. Land Degradation and Development 18: 249–268. doi:10.1002/ldr.777.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roba, H. G. (2008). Global goals, Local Actions: A Framework for Integrating Indigenous Knowledge and Ecological Methods for Rangeland Assessment and Monitoring in Northern Kenya. PhD thesis, Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, (UMB), Ås, Norway.

  • Roba, H. G., and Oba, G. (2008). Integration of Herder Knowledge And Ecological Methods For Land Degradation Assessment Around Sedentary Settlements in a Sub-humidzone in Northern Kenya. International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 15: 251–264. doi:10.3843/SusDev.15.3:8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roba, H. G., and Oba, G. (2009). Community Participatory Landscape Classification and Biodiversity Assessment and Monitoring Grazing Land in Northern Kenya. Journal of Environmental Management 90: 673–682. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.12.017.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roba, A. W., and Witsenburg, K. (2004). Surviving Pastoral Decline. Pastoral Sedentarization, Natural Resource Management and Livelihood Diversification in the Marsabit District, northern Kenya. PhD thesis, University of Amsterdam.

  • SAS (2003). The SAS Systems for Windows, Release version 9.1. SAS, USA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sobania, N. W. (1979). Background History of the Mt. Kulal Region of Kenya. IPAL Technical Report A-2. Unesco, Nairobi.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spellerberg, I. F. (2005). Monitoring Ecological Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, S., and Rohde, R. (2002). On Non-equilibrium in Arid and Semi Arid Grazing Systems. Journal of Biogeography 29: 1–26. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2699.2002.00799.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ter Braak, C. J. F., and Šmilauer, P. (1998). CANOCO Reference Manual and User’s Guide to Canoco for Windows. Microcomputer Power, Ithaca.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, D. S. G., and Middleton, N. J. (1994). Desertification: Exploding the Myth. Wiley, Chichester.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, D. S. G., and Twyman, C. (2004). Good or Bad Rangeland ? Hybrid Knowledge, Science and Local Understanding of Vegetation Dynamics in the Kalahari. Land Degradation and Development 15: 215–231. doi:10.1002/ldr.610.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UNCCD (1994). United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. United Nations, Geneva.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward, D., Ngairorue, B. T., Kathena, J., Samuels, R., and Ofran, Y. (1998). Land Degradation is not a Necessary Outcome of Communal Pastoralism in Arid Namibia. Journal of Arid Environments 40: 357–371. doi:10.1006/jare.1998.0458.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walther, D., and Herlocker, D. J. (1980). A Preliminary Study of the Relationship Between Vegetation, Soils and Land Use in the South-western Marsabit District. IPAL Technical Report A-3. UNESCO, Nairobi.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warren, D. (1992). Indigenous knowledge, biodiversity conservation and development. Keynote address at the International Conference on Conservation of Biodiversity in Africa: Local initiatives and institutional roles, 30 August–3 September 1992, Nairobi, Kenya.

  • Warren, A. (2002). Land Degradation is Contextual. Land Degradation and Development 13: 449–459. doi:10.1002/ldr.532.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was part of a PhD project completed by Hassan Guyo Roba on the integration of indigenous knowledge and ecological methods. The work was supervised by Professor Gufu Oba of the Department of International Environment and Development Studies, at the Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Noragric. The Norwegian Research Council funded the research work under project no: 161359/S30. Hassan acknowledges the assistance of Hussein Walaga, Peter Geykuku and Diba Guyo of the Kenya Agriculture Research Institute (KARI) in Marsabit for their assistance with the fieldwork. Lesuper Joseph is acknowledged for language translation and conducting interviews. The authors acknowledge with appreciation the constructive comments by two referees on the earlier version of the paper.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. NORAGRIC, Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Norwegian University of Life Science, P.O. Box 5003, 1432, Ås, Norway

    Hassan G. Roba & Gufu Oba

Authors
  1. Hassan G. Roba
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Gufu Oba
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gufu Oba.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Roba, H.G., Oba, G. Efficacy of Integrating Herder Knowledge and Ecological Methods for Monitoring Rangeland Degradation in Northern Kenya. Hum Ecol 37, 589–612 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-009-9271-0

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-009-9271-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation