Abstract
A new chronology is introduced to address the history of chemistry, with educational purposes, particularly for the end of the twentieth century and here identified as the fifth chemical revolution. Each revolution are considered in terms of the Kuhnian notion of ‘exemplar,’ rather than ‘paradigm.’ This approach enables the incorporation of instruments, as well as concepts and the rise of new subdisciplines into the revolutionary process and provides a more adequate representation of such periods of development and consolidation. The fifth revolution developed from 1973 to 1999 and is characterized by a deep transformation in the very heart of chemistry. That is to say, the size and type of objects (substances), the way in which they must be done and the time in which they are transformed. In one way or another, chemistry’ limits had been set out.
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Notes
Indeed technology is almost unique among disciplines in having been the subject of only the occasional Kuhnian analysis. There are, I believe, three reasons why this has been so: first, the assumption that technological knowledge is quintessentially tacit; second, the identification of technological knowledge with applied science; and third, the selection of analytical units for the history and present structure of technology that, however useful, for some purposes, do little to throw the cognitive aspect of technology into prominence. During the past decades or so, a number of different developments in the study of technology have been made these barriers less formidable than previously” (Laudan 1984, p. 6).
The disciplinary matrix contains; symbolic generalizations, methodology, values and exemplars (Marcum 2012).
The original Kuhn paradigm has two meanings: wide as disciplinary matrix and narrow as exemplar (Kindi and Arabatzis 2012).
Dyson (1999) recognized that astronomers and biologist have different attitudes towards their instruments. Astronomers traditionally invented and built their own instruments…and biologist buy them.
Here is important to recognize the words of Gary Gutting, one of Kuhn’s critics: One instance is technological practices that exist independent of theoretical science (arts and crafts). In contrast to the common view that such practices are entirely unscientific, being at best instances of knowing how rather than knowing what, an analysis in terms of exemplars suggest that both the skilled artisan or craftsman and the pure scientist are in essence people how know how to adapt and extend previously exemplary achievements to new cases (Gutting 1984, p. 56).
As Boon recently indicated: According to Hacking, we invent devices that produce data and isolate or create phenomena, and a network of different levels of theory is true to these phenomena. Conversely, we may in the end count them as phenomena only when the data are interpreted by theory. Thus there evolves a curious tailor-made fit between our ideas, our technological instruments, and our observations, which Hacking calls coherence theory of though, action, material things, and marks (Boon 2015, p. 64).
For example Davis Baird claims that: instruments are not in the intellectual basement; they occupy the same floor as our greatest theoretical contributions to understand the world (Baird and Shew 2004, p. xvii). About this Yakov Rabkin standpoint: Indeed the traditional emphasis historians of science have put on theory as the motor of scientific development tends to obscure the roles of instrumentation that are at the root of progress in chemical analysis. Consequently, the instrument has acquired the appearance of a tool manufactured expressly for the chemical investigator intent on making an ultimate breakthrough. This imaginary is related to the commonplace subordination of technology to science in much of the existent literature on the subject (Rabkin 1993, p. 26).
In their Instruments of Science. An Historical Encyclopedia, Bud and Warner indicated: “Scientific instruments are central to the practice of science. All too often they have been taken for granted. Nonetheless, while most would agree that telescopes and microscopes are scientific instruments, it has probed as difficult to establish a general definition of the category, as it has been to define science itself” (Bud and Warner 1998, p. ix).
Some recent publications about this are: Pitt (2010) about engineering; Soler et al. (2013) about calibration; Boon (2015) about instruments themselves; about chemistry laboratories Morris (2016). Related to this discussion Peter Galison’s book Image and Logic about twenty century physics, differentiate three layers, or levels, of this science: theory, experiment and instrumentation. Discussing the long-term stability of physics he recognized that there were breaks and revolutions, either in the instrumental, experimental or theoretical domains. The layers are intercalated and each one has different time’ spans. Whereas one of them has disrupted, the structures of the other layers remain largely intact “When a radically new theory is introduced, we would expect experimenters to use their best-established instruments, not their improvement ones…Examples of the survival of experimental practices across theoretical breaks are now abundant in the new literature of experiment. For the first time there are a real interest in the dynamics of experiment outside the provision of data to induce, confirm, or refute specific theories” (Galison 1977, pp. 799–800). Related to this see Morris (2016).
First, the episodes that I once described as scientific revolutions are intimately associated with the ones I‘ve here compared with speciation. It’s at this point that the previously mentioned disanalogy enters, for revolutions directly displace some of the concepts basic in a field in favour of others, a destructive element not nearly so directly present in biological speciation. But in addition to the destructive element in revolutions, there’s also a narrowing of focus. The mode of practice permitted by the new concepts never covers all the field for which the earlier one took responsibility. There’s always a residue (sometimes a very large one) the pursuit of which continues as an increasingly distinct speciality. Though the process of proliferation is often more complex than my reference to speciation suggest, there are regularly more specialities after a revolutionary change than there were before…The second component of the return to my past is the specification of what makes these specialities distinct, what keeps them apart and leaves the ground between them as apparently empty space. To that the answer is incommensurability, a growing conceptual disparity between the tools deployed in the two specialities. Once the two specialities have grown apart, the disparity makes it impossible for the practitioners of one to communicate fully with the practitioners of the other. And those communication problems reduce, though they never altogether eliminate, the likelihood that the two will produce fertile offspring (Kuhn 1992, pp. 19–20).
As was indicated by Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent: Whereas historians of science ignored textbooks because of the gulf between producing science and communicating science, a number of philosophers of science have emphasized their importance due to this gulf… Thomas Kuhn also recognized the importance of textbooks for the stabilization and perpetuation of paradigms. Textbooks are fundamentally conservative as they are meant for training students in solving the puzzles raised within the paradigm rather than inventing new problems. Kuhn argued that they assume their conservative function through various ways. They present only established and incontrovertible knowledge, the stable results of past revolutions (Bensaude-Vincent 2006, p. 669).
See for example, Law (1973).
As Marcum recognized (2015, p. 138): Inconmensurability plays a critical role in scientific progress by providing an opportunity for a new lexicon to develop fully without interference from the parent lexicon. About the importance of lexicons Kuhn said: Each community has a somewhat differently structured lexicon and each engages in a somewhat different form of professional life (cited in Marcum 2015, p. 139).
On this account, empirically a new instrument may open a new field of research where there may be no theory to explain what it measures. As Kuhn noted, it then requires a period of time to assimilate and explain what happens (1970): Many of the early experiments involving thermometers read like investigations of that new instrument rather than investigations with it. How could anything else have been the case during a period when it was totally unclear what the thermometer measured? In this sense major refinements in the instruments are also significant.
Hasok Chang strongly supports pluralism in science. For him “In place of monism (the notion that science is the search for the truth about nature) I offer pluralism as an ideal of science. I would define pluralism in science as the doctrine of advocating the cultivation of multiple systems of practice in any given field of science. By a “system of practice” I mean a coherent and interacting set of epistemic activities performed with a view to achieve certain aims” (Chang 2012, p. 260). In agreement with this approach, here answer 3 must be always considered, but not exclusively.
If I were now rewriting ‘The Structure of Scientific Revolutions’, I would emphasize language more and the normal/revolutionary distinction less (Kuhn 1983, p. 715).
Identified as the second revolution by Morris (2002a).
For example: The chemistry laboratory changed more between 1950 and 2000 than from 1600 until 1950 (Lazlo 2006).
An initial discussion of this revolution was done in the Lovain 2013’ ISPC Summer Symposium.
See for example the Nobel Lectures: Lipscomb (1976), Prigonine (1977), Mitchell (1978), Fukui and Hoffmann (1981) and Merrifield (1984). http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/: consulted 13/08/2016.
Besides the major improvement of old ones.
Recently Cerruti (2016) identified a similar period (1975–1995) “Towards complexity chemistry” (Verso la chimica della complessità).
This year also Hans Dehelmet and coworkers isolated and precisely characterized one isolated electron in a trap (Wineland et al. 1973)…electrons become real stuff! Wineland was awarded with the Physics Nobel Prize in 2012.
For example “The Third Chemistry” was the name of a book about organometallic chemistry appeared in those years (Ojlobistin 1971).
For example in 1982 appeared Polyhedron and Organometallics, one of the ten most cited chemistry journals.
As Reinhardt indicated (2006a, p. 223): The boost in the use rate of NMR in organic chemistry during 1961 and 1962 points to a crucial precondition: the availability of a suitable, and affordable, NMR spectrometer. In 1961 the first routine NMR spectrometer, the Varian Associates A-60, appeared on the market. This new instrument enabled organic chemists who were not specialists in NMR to obtain meaningful data by themselves, without help from experts. Between 1960 and 1964, 101 American university chemistry departments reported that they acquired eighty A-60 spectrometers, plus twenty-five NMR spectrometers of a more advanced type. Thus, the wide dissemination of instrumentation went hand in hand with the breakthrough of NMR.
A similar, but not so spectacular, situation in the refinement of an instrument is found in X-ray spectroscopy throughout the Fifth Chemical Revolution. X-ray tubes, with successive improvements, were used as the primary X-ray source for crystallography experiments from the introduction of this instrument in chemistry to the 1970s, when X-ray synchrotron radiation began to be used. Synchrotrons dedicated exclusively to X-ray production appeared in the 1980s, and since then their numbers have been increasing. As the instrument-developer Arndt said (2001, p. 465): In 1971, K.C. Holmes FRS and his co-workers first demonstrated the usefulness of synchrotron radiation at Hamburg for recording the feeble diffraction pattern from insect flight muscle. Today synchrotron radiation from X-rays beam lines at some hundreds of electron storage rings on three continents provide beam intensities up to 1000 times greater than those from the most powerful X-ray tubes. In addition to providing ever-higher and higher intensities, synchrotron sources have the advantage over X-ray tubes that allow the easy selection of the most suitable X-ray wavelength for a particular investigation.
Lovelock recalled making his first prototype and, characteristically, he emphasised its home-made character (Lovelock 1998, p. 6): My first detector was a simple cylindrical ion chamber, about two millilitres in volume and contained a one billion Becquerel strontium 90 source of beta radiation. I remember bending the stiff and fiercely radioactive foil behind a sheet of thick glass until it fitted the detector cavity…In the middle of the cavity was a small collecting electrode, connected to a home-made electrometer. The chamber was polarised by connecting the outer case to a voltage source…and was used an automobile spark-plug as the insulator that held the anode. The electrometer was quite literally home-made—it used a pair of vacuum tubes in a balanced cathode follower circuit and I made it on our kitchen table.
The ECD is the nose that smelled the onset of environmental corruption. It discovered the global distribution of the CFCs, the pesticides, and the PCBs, and it is still used to monitor their abundance. New uses of the ECD include the detection of perfluorocarbons used as tracers to measure air and water mass movements (Bud and Warner 1998, p. 214).
As he said: In 1961 I received a letter from the director of space flight operations of NASA that was to change my life. I was invited to be an experimenter on the forthcoming Surveyor missions to the Moon whose object was to analyze and examine the lunar regolith ahead of the landing of the astronauts. How could anyone whose life plan was to reduce scifi to practice refuse such an offer? It led to the fulfilling and rich field of science opened up by the view of the Earth and the planets from above. It led me to what I like to think is the most significant invention of my life, namely, the theory of the Earth as a self-regulating system—what I like to call Gaia (Lovelock 1995, p. 249).
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was designed to reduce the production and consumption of ozone depleting substances in order to reduce their abundance in the atmosphere, and thereby protect the earth’s fragile ozone layer. The Montreal Protocol includes a unique adjustment provision that enables the Parties to the Protocol to respond quickly to new scientific information and agree to accelerate the reductions required on chemicals already covered by the Protocol. These adjustments are then automatically applicable to all countries that ratified the Protocol… The Parties to the Montreal Protocol have amended the Protocol to enable, among other things, the control of new chemicals and the creation of a financial mechanism to enable developing countries to comply… (Ozone Secretariat 2016).
Few arguments about its novelty in this journal are: As a matter of fact, green chemistry seems to correspond to a radical change in the history of chemistry, and not merely to a green washing exercise undertaken by chemist in order to improve the public image of their scientific and industrial domain (Llored and Sarrade 2016 published on line); green chemistry is a new practice of chemistry suitable to bring Sustainability into chemical products and process (Marques and Machado 2014, p. 127); green chemistry is not different from traditional chemistry in as much as it embraces the same creativity and innovation that has always been central to classical chemistry. However, there lies a difference in that historically synthetic chemists have not been seen to rank the environment very high in their priorities. But with an increase in environmental consciousness throughout the world, there is a challenge for chemists to develop new products, processes and services that achieve necessary social, economical and environmental objectives (Kidwai and Mohan 2005, p. 271).
The twelve principles are: (1) It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it is formed. (2) Synthetic methods should be designed to maximize the incorporation of all materials used in the process into the final product. (3) Wherever practicable, synthetic methodologies should be designed to use and generate substances that possess little or no toxicity to human health and the environment. (4) Chemical products should be designed to preserve efficacy of function while reducing toxicity. (5) The use of auxiliary substances (e.g. solvents, separation agents, etc.) should be made unnecessary wherever possible and innocuous when used. (6) Energy requirements should be recognized for their environmental and economic impacts and should be minimized. Synthetic methods should be conducted at ambient temperature and pressure. (7) A raw material of feedstock should be renewable rather than depleting wherever technically and economically practicable. (8) Unnecessary derivatization (blocking group, protection/deprotection, temporary modification of physical/chemical processes) should be avoided whenever possible. (9) Catalytic reagents (as selective as possible) are superior to stoichiometric reagents. (10) Chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their function they do not persist in the environment and break down into innocuous degradation products. (11) Analytical methodologies need to be further developed to allow for real-time, in process monitoring and control prior to the formation of hazardous substances. (12) Substances and the form of a substance used in a chemical process should be chosen so as to minimize the potential for chemical accidents, including releases, explosions, and fires.
Sustainable and green chemistry in very simple terms is just a different way of thinking about how chemistry and chemical engineering can be done. Over the years different principles have been proposed that can be used when thinking about the design, development and implementation of chemical products and processes. These principles enable scientists and engineers to protect and benefit the economy, people and the planet by finding creative and innovative ways to reduce waste, conserve energy, and discover replacements for hazardous substances (ACS 2016).
As Pons indicated in his book’ introduction (1999): NMR is better suited than any other experimental technique for the characterization of supramolecular systems in solution.
The last two terms have been used in a interchangeably way, so are defined properly as (Lehn and Ball 2000, p. 304):
Self assembly is the spontaneous association of several (more than two) molecular components into a discrete, non-covalently bound aggregate with a well-defined structure. This will generally involve more than one kinetically distinct step. Self assembly involves molecular-recognition process—binding events, but not ‘mere’ binding. Rather, one may say that recognition is binding with a purpose.
Self-organization is the spontaneous ordering of molecular or supramolecular units into a higher-order non-covalent structure characterized by some degree of spatial and/or temporal order or design—by correlations between remote regions. A self-organized system may be either at equilibrium or in a dynamic state characterized by several stable configurations; and it will exhibit collective (and often non-linear) behaviour. Such a definition does not (and need not) exclude crystallization and related ordering phenomena such as liquid-crystallinity.
If nanoscience is concerned with making, manipulating and imaging materials having at least one spatial dimension in the size range of 1–1000 nm and nanotechnology can be defined as a device or machine, product or process, based upon individual or multiple integrated nanoscale components, then what is nanochemistry? In its broadest terms, the defining feature on nanochemistry is the utilization of syntethic chemistry to make nanoscale building blocks of different size and shape, composition and surface structure, charge and functionality (Ozin et al. 2009, p. 13).
The images produced by the STM are still not pictures in the conventional sense, because they depend on electrical currents, not light, and therefore represent a new way of seeing (Von Bayer 1994, p. 68).
IBM, along with the raft of other high tech companies that are pursuing nanotechnology, no doubt seeks truth, but not at the expense of shareholders…nanotechnology, including the instruments that make it possible, such as the scanning tunnelling microscope, is developing in a much more thoroughly integrated academic/commercial matrix (Baird and Shew 2004, p. 146).
Making tips remains something of a dark art. One takes a piece of tungsten or platinum-iridium wire and cuts it with wire cutters, being careful to pull away from the end that will serve as the tip. Some researchers develop a good knack at this, while others do not. While tips are usually diagrammed as nice symmetrical ice-cream cone structures, in reality they are messy affairs resembling a jagged mountain range. But was is crucial is that one peak from this range be sufficiently higher than all the others and itself be atomically sharp; it then can serve as the point through which the tunnelling current passes (Baird and Shew 2004, p. 147).
Tunneling is described as: According to quantum mechanics a subatomic particle can pass through a spatial region in which the particle’s kinetic energy is less than its potential energy…The observation of the tunneling effect in a variety of systems has offered direct evidence of quantum mechanics in action. Some of the landmarks are: field emission from metal, ionization of hydrogen atoms…alpha particle decay process in heavy atoms…and STM (Meyers 2000, p. 9285).
STM requires to works properly Ultra High Vacuum (UHV), <10−8 mbar and to achieve atomic resolution, vibration isolation is essential.
Two commentaries of von Bayer (1994) are useful: Contrary to appearances (the STM image) it was not an actual photograph but a computer reconstruction based on measurements of the electric current that flowed through the tip of a needle as it passed across the molecule’ surface. A hidden chain of readings, calculations and interpretations stood between the sample and the final image (p. 63). The use of color in atomic images, false through it is, has a profound impact: it restores to atoms an element of the reality that they has lost. Besides shape, texture, weight, and hardness, real objects have color, no matter how drab it may be…the scientist who produce STM images color them for reasons other than emotional appeal or the hope of making them more real. A simple purpose of color coding is the identification of different species of atoms (p. 80).
He was awarded “for his fundamental work in electron optics, and for the design of the first electron microscope”.
In an Editorial of Hyle its editor Schummer (2004) said: the general important point I want to make, and my reason to devote an entire editorial to this, is that there are fundamental questions waiting to be addressed by philosophers of chemistry, philosophical questions that require both chemical understanding and philosophical knowledge and skills, and not just a familiarity with the technicalities of some theory or with the writings of one particular philosopher. Whether chemistry is primarily about things or about processes does not follow from any experiment or theory but is, knowingly or not, rather presupposed instead, and such is the nature of a philosophical question.
The study of chemical events that occur in the femtosecond timescale is the ultimate achievement in half a century of techniques for the study of fast reactions and, although many future events will be run over the same course, chemist are near the end of the race against time, Porter (1995, p. 3). George Porter was awarded in 1967 with the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
Instrument first constructed in 1982. Here is important to remember J.C. Maxwell quotation: Instruments are those that were specifically made for scientific experiments (cited in Bud and Warner 1998, p. ix).
As Zewail indicated: Flashing a molecule with a femtosecond laser pulse can be compared to the effect of a stroboscope flash or the opening of a camera shutter. Thus a pulse from a femtosecond laser, combined with an appropriate detector, can produce a well-resolved “image” of a molecule as it passes through a specific configuration in a process of nuclear rearrangement (2001, p. 740).
A physical chemistry textbook explanation of a specific experiment indicated: Until very recently there were no direct spectroscopic observations on activated complex, for they have a very fleeting existence and often survive for only a few picoseconds. In a typical experiment designed to detect an activated complex, a femtosecond laser pulse is used to excite a molecule to a dissociative state, and then a second femtosecond pulse is set at absorption of one of the free fragmentation products, so its absorption is a measure of the abundance of the dissociation product. For example when ICN is dissociated by the first pulse, the emergence of CN from the photoactivated state can be monitored by watching the growth of the free CN absorption. In this way it has been found that the CN signal remains zero until the fragments have been separated by about 600 pm, which takes about 20 fs (Atkins and de Paula 2006, p. 892).
Following the Sputnik’s launching several approaches, from Nuffield Chemistry and Chem Study to Salters’ Chemistry and ChemCom, have been developed and spread to many other countries.
About this Hacking said: Philosophers of science who discuss realism and antirealism have to know a little about the microscopes that inspire such eloquence. Even the light microscope is a marvel of marvels. It does not work in the way that must untutored people suppose. But why should a philosopher care how it works? Because it is one way to find out about the real world (1983, p. 186). See also: Good (1999).
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To DGAPA-UNAM (México), Marcelo Giordan and Rosaria Justi (Brasil), Agustí Nieto and Monstserrat Recasens (Catalunya) and Helena Ghibaudi and Luigi Cerruti (Italy) for their support, ideas and camaraderie.
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Chamizo, J.A. The fifth chemical revolution: 1973–1999. Found Chem 19, 157–179 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10698-017-9280-9
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10698-017-9280-9