Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Evaluation of harvested rainwater quality at primary schools of southwest coastal Bangladesh

  • Published:
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Rainwater is a typical source of drinking water in the coastal areas of Bangladesh given the acute scarcity of drinking water. This study assessed potability of harvested rainwater of primary schools in southwest coastal Bangladesh. Water samples collected from 23 primary schools of Mongla sub-district under Bagerhat district were evaluated for indicator bacteria (total coliform (TC) and E. coli) and physico-chemical parameters (pH, electrical conductivity, turbidity, total dissolved solid, Fe, Zn, Pb, and Cd). Median concentrations of TC and E. coli in the harvested rainwater samples were respectively 3000 cfu/100 ml and 6 cfu/100 ml. However, concentrations of these indicator bacteria were lower at the consumption points which received a prior treatment. Concentration of Pb exceeded the maximum allowable limit for drinking water indicated by WHO and Bangladesh drinking water guideline value in 92% and 61% of the samples respectively, and the mean concentration was 0.08 mg/l (8 times higher than the WHO guideline value). The Pb contamination possibly occurred from the painting on roof railing and roof stair room. Therefore, consumption of harvested rainwater at primary schools may cause substantial health risk for the school-going children.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abbasi, T., & Abbasi, S. A. (2011). Sources of pollution in rooftop rainwater harvesting systems and their control. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 41, 2097–2167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed, W., Gardner, T., & Toze, S. (2011). Microbiological quality of roof-harvested rainwater and health risks: a review. Journal of Environmental Quality, 40(1), 13–21. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2010.0345.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed, W., Zhang, Q., Ishii, S., Hamilton, K., & Haas, C. (2018). Microfluidic quantification of multiple enteric and opportunistic bacterial pathogens in roof-harvested rainwater tank samples. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 190, 105. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-018-6482-0.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alam, A., Rahman, M., & Islam, S. (2011). Performance of modified design pond sand filters. Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology-AQUA, 60(5), 311–318.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • APHA (American Public Health Association). (2005). Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water (21st ed.). Washington, DC: American Public Health Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Diseases Registry). (2015). Priority list of hazardous substances. Available from: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/spl/resources/atsdr_2015_spl_detailed_data_table.pdf

  • Brown, J., & Sobsey, M. D. (2010). Microbiological effectiveness of locally produced ceramic filters for drinking water treatment in Cambodia. Journal of Water and Health, 8(1), 1–10.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Celik, I., Tamimi, L. M., Al-Khatib, I. A., & Apul, D. S. (2017). Management of rainwater harvesting and its impact on the health of people in the Middle East: case study from Yatta town, Palestine. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 189(271), 271. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-5970-y.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chidamba, L., & Korsten, L. (2018). Relative proportions of E. coli and Enterococcus spp. may be a good indicator of potential health risks associated with the use of roof harvested rainwater stored in tanks. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 190(177), 177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-018-6554-1.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clasen, T. F., & Bastable, A. (2003). Faecal contamination of drinking water during collection and household storage: the need to extend protection to the point of use. Journal of Water and Health, 1(3), 109–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, A. P., Shokouhian, M., & Ni, S. (2001). Loading estimates of lead, copper, cadmium, and zinc in urban runoff from specific sources. Chemosphere, 44(5), 997–1009.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fang, Y., Sun, X., Yang, W., Ma, N., Xin, Z., Fu, J., Liu, X., Liu, M., Mariga, A. M., Zhu, X., & Hu, Q. (2014). Concentrations and health risks of lead, cadmium, arsenic, and mercury in rice and edible mushrooms in China. Food Chemistry, 147(15), 147–151.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forster, J. (1999). Variability of roof runoff quality. Water Science and Technology, 39(5), 137–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gould, J. (1999). Is rainwater safe to drink? A review of recent findings. 9th International Rainwater Catchment Systems Conference, “Rainwater Catchment: An Answer to the Water Scarcity of the Next Millennium.” Petrolina, Brazil - July 1999.

  • Gromaire, M. C., Chebbo, G., & Constant, A. (2002). Impact of zinc roofing on urban runoff pollutant load, the case of Paris. Water Science and Technology, 45(7), 113–121.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Handia, L. (2005). Comparative study of rainwater quality in urban Zambia. Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology- AQUA, 54(1), 55–64.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Howard, G., Ahmed, M. F., Shamsuddin, A. F., Mahmud, S. G., & Deere, D. (2006). Risk assessment of arsenic mitigation options in Bangladesh. Journal of Health, Population, and Nutrition, 24(3), 346–355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Igbinosa, I. H., & Aighewi, I. T. (2017). Quality assessment and public health status of harvested rainwater in a peri-urban community in Edo State of Nigeria. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 189(405), 405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-6122-0.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Islam, M. A., Azad, A. K., Akber, M. A., Rahman, M., & Sadhu, I. (2015). Effectiveness of solar disinfection (SODIS) in rural coastal Bangladesh. Journal of Water and Health, 13(4), 1113–1122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Islam, M. M., Chou, F. N.-F., Kabir, M. R., & Liaw, C.-H. (2010). Rainwater: a potential alternative source for scarce safe drinking and arsenic contaminated water in Bangladesh. Water Resources Management, 24, 3987–4008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Islam, M. A., Sakakibara, H., Karim, M. R., Sekine, M., & Mahmud, Z. H. (2011). Bacteriological assessment of drinking water supply options in coastal areas of Bangladesh. Journal of Water and Health, 9(2), 415–428.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaiser, R., Henderson, A. K., Daley, W. R., Naughton, M., Khan, M. H., Rahman, M., Kieszak, S., & Rubin, C. H. (2001). Blood lead levels of primary school children in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Environmental Health Perspectives, 109(6), 563–566.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kamruzzaman, A. K. M., & Ahmed, F. (2006). Study of performance of existing pond sand filters in different parts of Bangladesh. In: Proceedings of 32nd WEDC International Conference. Colombo, 2006, pp. 377–380.

  • Kabir, M., Islam, M., Akber, M., & Ahsan, M. (2016). Bacteriological assessment of aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) water in southwest coastal Bangladesh. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 6(2), 231–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karim, M. R. (2010). Assessment of rainwater harvesting for drinking water supply in Bangladesh. Water Science and Technology:Water Supply, 10(2), 243–249.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karim, M. R., Rahman, S., Hossain, M. A., Islam, M. A., Mahmud, S. G., & Mahmud, Z. H. (2016). Microbiological effectiveness of mineral pot filters as household water treatment in the Coastal Areas of Bangladesh. Microbial Risk Analysis, 4, 07–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mran.2016.06.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lye, D. J. (2009). Rooftop runoff as a source of contamination: a review. Science of the Total Environment, 407(21), 5429–5434.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lye, D. J. (2002). Health risks associated with consumption of untreated water from household roof catchment systems. J American Water Resources Association, 38(5), 1301–1306.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Magyar, M. I., Mitchell, V. G., Ladson, A. R., & Diaper, C. (2008). Lead and other heavy metals common contaminants of rainwater tanks in Melbourne. Proceedings of water down under 2008, pp 409–417, Adelaide, Australia.

  • Metre, V. P. C., & Mahler, B. J. (2003). The contribution of particles washed from roof tops to contaminant loading to urban streams. Chemosphere, 52(10), 1727–1741.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muhammad, S., Shah, M. T., & Khan, S. (2011). Health risk assessment of heavy metals and their source apportionment in drinking water of Kohistan region, northern Pakistan. Microchemical Journal, 98(2), 334–343.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, H. M., Sampson, M., Farahbakhsh, K., & McBean, E. (2010). Microbial and chemical assessment of ceramic and BioSand water filters in rural Cambodia. Water Science and Technology, 10(3), 286–295.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oswald, W. E., Lescano, A. G., Bern, C., Calderon, M. M., Cabrera, L., & Gilman, R. H. (2007). Fecal contamination of drinking water within peri-urban households, Lima, Peru. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 77(4), 699–704.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rufener, S., Mäusezahl, D., Mosler, H. J., & Weingartner, R. (2010). Quality of drinking-water at source and point-of-consumption—drinking cup as a high potential recontamination risk: a field study in Bolivia. Journal of Health, Population, and Nutrition, 28(1), 34–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simmons, G., Hope, V., Lewis, G., Whitmore, J., & Gao, W. (2001). Contamination of roof-collected rain water in Auckland, New Zealand. Water Research, 35(6), 1518–1524.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van Halem, D. (2006). Ceramic silver impregnated pot filters for household drinking water treatment in developing countries Master’s thesis. Faculty of Civil Engineering, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands.

  • Ward, S., Memon, F. A., & Butter, D. (2010). Harvested rainwater quality: the importance of appropriate design. Water Science and Technology, 61(7), 1707–1714.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • WHO. (1997). Guidelines for drinking-water quality, 2nd edition, Vol. 3, Surveillance and control of community supplies. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.

  • WHO. (1996). Guidelines for drinking-water quality – health criteria and other supporting information. Geneva: WHO.

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO. (2011). Evaluating household water treatment options: health-based targets and microbiological performance specifications. Geneva: World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, Y., & Lin, Y. (2014). Leaching of lead from new unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) pipes into drinking water. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22(11), 8405–8411.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zobrist, J., Muller, S. R., Ammann, A., Bucheli, T. D., Mottier, V., Ochs, M., Schoenenberger, R., Eugster, J., & Boller, M. (2000). Quality of roof runoff for ground water infiltration. Water Research, 34(5), 1455–1462.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We express our sincere thanks to the DPHE zonal laboratory, Khulna for laboratory support for metal analysis. We would like to thank the school teachers of the study area who provided support during sampling.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Environmental Science Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna, Bangladesh

    Md. Atikul Islam, Md. Ali Akber & Md. Pervez Kabir

  2. Zonal Laboratory, Department of Public Health and Engineering (DPHE), Khulna, Bangladesh

    Md. Aminur Rahman

  3. Forestry and Wood Technology Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna, Bangladesh

    Md. Azharul Islam

Authors
  1. Md. Atikul Islam
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Md. Ali Akber
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Md. Aminur Rahman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Md. Azharul Islam
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Md. Pervez Kabir
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Md. Atikul Islam.

Additional information

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Islam, M.A., Akber, M.A., Rahman, M.A. et al. Evaluation of harvested rainwater quality at primary schools of southwest coastal Bangladesh. Environ Monit Assess 191, 80 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7217-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7217-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation