Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Spatiotemporal variation of groundwater quality using integrated multivariate statistical and geostatistical approaches in Amol–Babol Plain, Iran

  • Published:
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In recent years, groundwater quality has become a global concern due to its effect on human life and natural ecosystems. To assess the groundwater quality in the Amol–Babol Plain, a total of 308 water samples were collected during wet and dry seasons in 2009. The samples were analysed for their physico-chemical and biological constituents. Multivariate statistical analysis and geostatistical techniques were applied to assess the spatial and temporal variabilities of groundwater quality and to identify the main factors and sources of contamination. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that seven factors explained around 75 % of the total variance, which highlighted salinity, hardness and biological pollution as the dominant factors affecting the groundwater quality in the Plain. Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted on the dataset to evaluate the spatio-temporal variation. The results showed that there were no significant temporal variations between the two seasons, which explained the similarity between six component factors in dry and wet seasons based on the PCA results. There are also significant spatial differences (p > 0.05) of the parameters under study, including salinity, potassium, sulphate and dissolved oxygen in the plain. The least significant difference (LSD) test revealed that groundwater salinity in the eastern region is significantly different to the central and western side of the study area. Finally, multivariate analysis and geostatistical techniques were combined as an effective method for demonstrating the spatial structure of multivariate spatial data. It was concluded that multiple natural processes and anthropogenic activities were the main sources of groundwater salinization, hardness and microbiological contamination of the study area.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abudaya, M., & Hararah, S. (2013). Spatial and temporal variations in water quality along the coast of Gaza Strip. Journal of Environment and Earth Science, 3(2), 53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams, S., Titus, R., Pietersen, K., Tredoux, G., & Harris, C. (2001). Hydrochemical characteristics of aquifers near Sutherland in the Western Karoo, South Africa. Journal of Hydrology, 241(1–2), 91–103.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aghanabati, S. A. (2004). Geology of Iran. Tehran, Iran: Geological Survey of Iran.

    Google Scholar 

  • Agoubi, B., Kharroubi, A., & Abida, H. (2013). Hydrochemistry of groundwater and its assessment for irrigation purpose in coastal Jeffara Aquifer, southeastern Tunisia. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 6(4), 1163–1172. doi:10.1007/s12517-011-0409-1.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmadi, S. H., & Sedghamiz, A. (2007). Geostatistical analysis of spatial and temporal variations of groundwater level. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 129(1–3), 277–294.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al Kuisi, M., Al-Qinna, M., Margane, A., & Aljazzar, T. (2009). Spatial assessment of salinity and nitrate pollution in Amman Zarqa Basin: a case study. Environmental Earth Sciences, 59(1), 117–129. doi:10.1007/s12665-009-0010-z.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aladin, N., Plotnikov, I. (2004). The Caspian Sea. Lake Basin Management Initiative,Thematic Paper.

  • APHA. (2005). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. vol (21st ed). Washington DC: American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water Environment federation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aris, A. Z., Abdullah, M. H., & Baba, M. (2008). Hydrochemical analysis on groundwater in shallow aquifer of Manukan and Mabul islands (pp. 387–394). Malaysia: International Association of Hydrological Sciences Red Book.

    Google Scholar 

  • Astel, A., Biziuk, M., Przyjazny, A., & Namieśnik, J. (2006). Chemometrics in monitoring spatial and temporal variations in drinking water quality. Water Research, 40(8), 1706–1716. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2006.02.018.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • ASTM. (2001). American Society for Testing and Material Standards. New York: American Standard for Testing Materials.

    Google Scholar 

  • Babiker, I. S., Mohamed, M. A. A., & Hiyama, T. (2007). Assessing groundwater quality using GIS. Water Resources Manage, 21, 699–715.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Belkhiri, L., Boudoukha, A., Mouni, L., & Baouz, T. (2010). Application of multivariate statistical methods and inverse geochemical modeling for characterization of groundwater” A case study: Ain Azel plain (Algeria). Geoderma, 159(3–4), 390–398.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bordalo, A., Nilsumranchit, W., & Chalermwat, K. (2001). Water quality and uses of the Bangpakong River (Eastern Thailand). Water Research, 35(15), 3635–3642.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boyacioglu, H., & Boyacioglu, H. (2008). Water pollution sources assessment by multivariate statistical methods in the Tahtali Basin, Turkey. Environmental Geology, 54(2), 275–282. doi:10.1007/s00254-007-0815-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bu, H., Tan, X., Li, S., & Zhang, Q. (2010). Temporal and spatial variations of water quality in the Jinshui River of the South Qinling Mts., China. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 73(5), 907–913. doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2009.11.007.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cloutier, V., Lefebvre, R., Therrien, R., & Savard, M. M. (2008). Multivariate statistical analysis of geochemical data as indicative of the hydrogeochemical evolution of groundwater in a sedimentary rock aquifer system. Journal of Hydrology, 353(3–4), 294–313.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Conover, W. I. (1980). Practical nonparametric statistics. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dar, I., Sankar, K., & Dar, M. (2011). Spatial assessment of groundwater quality in Mamundiyar basin, Tamil Nadu, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 178(1–4), 437–447. doi:10.1007/s10661-010-1702-2.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, J. C., Sampson, R. J. (2002). Statistics and data analysis in geology.

  • Delgado, C., Pacheco, J., Cabrera, A., Batllori, E., Orellana, R., & Bautista, F. (2010). Quality of groundwater for irrigation in tropical karst environment: the case of Yucatán, Mexico. Agricultural Water Management, 97(10), 1423–1433. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2010.04.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elci, A., & Polat, R. (2010). Assessment of the statistical significance of seasonal groundwater quality change in a karstic aquifer system near Izmir-Turkey. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 172(1), 445–462. doi:10.1007/s10661-010-1346-2.

    Google Scholar 

  • EPA. (2011). Drinking Water Standards and Health Advisories. Washington, DC: Environmental Protection Agency Office of Water U.S.

    Google Scholar 

  • EU (98/83/EEC) Official Journal of the European Communities., vol No. L 297/1.

  • Fakharian, K. (2010). Hydrogeology report of Amol-Babol plain, Study of prevention, control and reduce pollution of Amol- Babol aquifer, Persian edn. Report prepared for the Department of Environment of Iran, through a contract with Amirkabir University of Technology.

  • Farnham, I. M., Johannesson, K. H., Singh, A. K., Hodge, V. F., & Stetzenbach, K. J. (2003). Factor analytical approaches for evaluating groundwater trace element chemistry data. Analytica Chimica Acta, 490(1–2), 123–138.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbons, J. D. (1993). Nonparametric statistics: an introduction. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guler, C., & Thyne, G. D. (2004). Hydrologic and geologic factors controlling surface and groundwater chemistry in Indian Wells-Owens Valley area, southeastern California, USA. Journal of Hydrology, 285(1–4), 177–198.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harman, H. H. (1960). Modern factor analysis. Chicago: University of Chicago press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Healy, R. E. (2013). Integration of factor analysis and GIS in spatial modelling of the Dublin surge geochemical data set. Irland: Dublin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helena, B., Pardo, R., Vega, M., Barrado, E., Fernandez, J., & Fernandez, L. (2000). Temporal evolution of groundwater composition in an alluvial aquifer (Pisuerga River, Spain) by principal component analysis. Water Research, 34(3), 807–816.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Helsel, D. R., Hirsch, R. M. (2002). Statistical methods in water resources. Techniques of water-resources investigations of the United States Geological Survey.

  • Ho, C. J. (2001). Effect of land use and urbanization on hydrochemistry and contamination of groundwater from Taejon area, Korea. Journal of Hydrology, 253(1–4), 194–210.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jagadeesan, L., Manju, M., Perumal, P., & Anantharaman, P. (2011). Temporal variations of water quality characteristics and their principal sources in tropical Vellar Estuary, South East Coast of India. Research Journal of Environmental Sciences, 5(8), 703–713.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jahed Khaniki, G. R., Dehghani, M. H., & Mahvi, A. H. (2008). Concentrations of nitrate and nitrite in groundwater resources of Hamadan Province. Research Journal of Chemistry And Environment, 12(4), 56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jamab. (1995). Geological report of the comprehensive water plan of Mazandaran. Jamab Consulting Co.

  • Juahir, H., Zain, S. M., Aris, A. Z., Yusoff, M. K., & Mokhtar, M. B. (2010). Spatial assessment of Langat river water quality using chemometrics. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 12(1), 287–295.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaiser, H. (1958). The varimax criterion for analytic rotation in factor analysis. Psychometrika, 23(3), 187–200. doi:10.1007/bf02289233.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karanth, K. R. (1990). Groundwater assessment, development and management. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khodapanah, L., Sulaiman, W. N. A., & Khodapanah, N. (2009). Groundwater quality assessment for different purposes in Eshtehard District, Tehran, Iran. European Journal of Scientific Research, 36–4, 543–553.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kooveei, H., Ghayomian, J., Gieske, A. (2005). Geostatistical assessment of groundwater quality in Sarchahan. http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/nrm/water/ground/ma05168pf.htm. 02/05/2011

  • Lark, R. M. (2000). Estimating variograms of soil properties by the method-of-moments and maximum likelihood. European Journal of Soil Science, 51, 717–728.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, J., Australia, G. (2008). A review of spatial interpolation methods for environmental scientists, vol 137. Geoscience Australia Canberra.

  • Liu, C. W., Lin, H. K., & Ming, K. Y. (2003). Application of factor analysis in the assessment of groundwater quality in a blackfoot disease area in Taiwan. Science of the Total Environment, 313(1–3), 77–89.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, C. W., Jang, C. S., Chen, C. P., Lin, C. N., & Lou, K. L. (2008). Characterization of groundwater quality in Kinmen Island using multivariate analysis and geochemical modelling. Hydrogeological Processes, 22(3), 376–383.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, W.-C., Yu, H.-L., & Chung, C.-E. (2011). Assessment of water quality in a subtropical Alpine Lake using multivariate statistical techniques and geostatistical mapping: a case study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 8(4), 1126–1140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Love, D., Hallbauer, D., Amos, A., & Hranova, R. (2004). Factor analysis as a tool in groundwater quality management: two southern African case studies. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 29(15–18), 1135–1143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matheron, G. (1965). Les Variables Regionalises et Leur Estimation. Paris, France: Masson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mehrdadi, N., Daryabeigi Zand, A., Matloubi, A. A., Baghvand, A. (2007). An investigation of sources of environmental pollution and its impact on groundwater quality in Mazandaran province, north of Iran. Paper presented at the 10th international conference on environmental science and technology, Kos Island, Greece.

  • Metcalf, Eddy. (2000). Integrated aquifer management plan: final report. Gaza Coastal Aquifer Management Program.

  • Miguel, L.-H., & Rosario, J.-E. (2008). Impact of agricultural activity and geologic controls on groundwater quality of the alluvial aquifer of the Guadalquivir River (province of Jaen, Spain): a case study. Environmental Geology, 54(7), 1391–1402. doi:10.1007/s00254-007-0920-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mustapha, A., & Aris, A. Z. (2012). Spatial aspects of surface water quality in the Jakara Basin, Nigeria using chemometric analysis. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A, 47(10), 1455–1465. doi:10.1080/10934529.2012.673305.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mustapha, A., Aris, A. Z., Juahir, H., & Ramli, M. F. (2013a). Surface water quality contamination source apportionment and physicochemical characterization at the upper section of the Jakara Basin, Nigeria. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 6(12), 4903–4915.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mustapha, A., Aris, A. Z., Juahir, H., Ramli, M. F., & Kura, N. U. (2013b). River water quality assessment using environmentric techniques: case study of Jakara River Basin. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. doi:10.1007/s11356-013-1542-z.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nas, B., & Berktay, A. (2010). Groundwater quality mapping in urban groundwater using GIS. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 160(1–4), 215–227. doi:10.1007/s10661-008-0689-4.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • New Zealand S. (1998a). Water quality—Sampling. Part 1: guidance on the design of sampling programmes, sampling techniques and the preservation and handling of samples. tandards New Zealand, Wellington, New Zealand

  • Olmez, I., Beal, J. W., & Villaume, J. F. (1994). A new approach to understanding multiple-source groundwater contamination: factor analysis and chemical mass balances. Water Research, 28(5), 1095–1101.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Papaioannou, A., Mavridou, A., Hadjichristodoulou, C., Papastergiou, P., Pappa, O., Dovriki, E., et al. (2010). Application of multivariate statistical methods for groundwater physicochemical and biological quality assessment in the context of public health. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 170(1), 87–97. doi:10.1007/s10661-009-1217-x.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pazand, K., Hezarkhani, A., Ghanbari, Y., Aghavali, N. (2011). Groundwater geochemistry in the Meshkinshahr basin of Ardabil province in Iran. Environmental Earth Sciences:1-9. doi:10.1007/s12665-011-1131-8

  • Reghunath, R., Murthy, T. R. S., & Raghavan, B. R. (2002). The utility of multivariate statistical techniques in hydrogeochemical studies: an example from Karnataka, India. Water Research, 36(10), 2437–2442.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reyment, R. A., & Jöreskog, K. G. (1993). Applied factor analysis in the natural sciences. New York: Cambridge University Press.

  • Robinson, T. P., & Metternicht, G. (2006). Testing the performance of spatial interpolation techniques for mapping soil properties. Computer and Electronics in Agriculture, 50, 97–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sajil Kumar, P. J., Jegathambal, P., & James, E. J. (2011). Multivariate and geostatistical analysis of groundwater quality in Palar river basin. International Journal of Geology, 5(4), 108–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaefer, K., & Einax, J. (2010). Analytical and chemometric characterization of the Cruces River in South Chile. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 17(1), 115–123. doi:10.1007/s11356-009-0116-6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shahbazi, A., Esmaeli-Sar, A. (2009). Groundwater quality assessment in north of Iran: a case study of the Mazandaran Province. World Sciences Journal 5 (environment):92-97

  • Shyu, G. S., Cheng, B. Y., Chiang, C. T., Yao, P. H., & Chang, T. K. (2011). Applying factor analysis combined with kriging and information entropy theory for mapping and evaluating the stability of groundwater quality variation in Taiwan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 8(4), 1084–1109. doi:10.3390/ijerph8041084.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Srinivasa, R, N., Rajendra, P. P. (1997). Phosphate pollution in the groundwater of lower Vamsadhara river basin, India. Environmental Geology 31.

  • Stansfield, B. (2001). Aquatic ecology and water quality sampling procedures manual. Hawke’s Bay Regional Council Report EMI 0110.

  • Subbarao, C., Subbarao, N. V., & Chandu, S. N. (1996). Characterization of groundwater contamination using factor analysis. Environmental Geology, 28(4), 175–180. doi:10.1007/s002540050091.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Subyani, A. M., & Al Ahmadi, M. E. (2010). Multivariate statistical analysis of groundwater quality in Wadi Ranyah, Saudi Arabia. Earth Science, 21(2), 29–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sworobuk, J., Law, C., & Bissonnette, G. (1987). Assessment of the bacteriological quality of rural groundwater supplies in Northern West Virginia. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 36(1–2), 163–170. doi:10.1007/bf00450627.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vengosh, A., & Ben-Zvi, A. (1994). Formation of a salt plume in the coastal plain aquifer of Israel: the Be’er Toviyya region. Journal of Hydrology, 160, 21–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wakida, F. T., & Lerner, D. N. (2005). Non-agricultural sources of groundwater nitrate: a review and case study. Water Research, 39(1), 3–16.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Whitlock, J. E., Jones, D. T., & Harwood, V. J. (2002). Identification of the sources of fecal coliforms in an urban watershed using antibiotic resistance analysis. Water Research, 36(17), 4273–4282. doi:10.1016/S0043-1354(02)00139-2.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • WHO. (2011). Guidelines for drinking-water quality. vol 4, 3rd edn. Geneva: World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yammani, S., Reddy, T., & Reddy, M. (2008). Identification of influencing factors for groundwater quality variation using multivariate analysis. Environmental Geology, 55(1), 9–16. doi:10.1007/s00254-007-0958-5.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yidana, S. M. (2010). Groundwater classification using multivariate statistical methods: Southern Ghana. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 57(5), 455–469.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the Soil and Water Pollution Bureau of the Department of Environment (DOE) in Iran for their financial support through a contract with Amirkabir University of Technology (AUT), Tehran, Iran. The financial support by DOE and the laboratory data and analyses provided by AUT are gratefully acknowledged. Special thanks are due to Mr. A. S. Mohammadlou for his sincere cooperation in providing the data.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Environmental Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

    Tahoora Sheikhy Narany, Mohammad Firuz Ramli, Ahmad Zaharin Aris & Wan Nor Azmin Sulaiman

  2. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

    Kazem Fakharian

Authors
  1. Tahoora Sheikhy Narany
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Mohammad Firuz Ramli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ahmad Zaharin Aris
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Wan Nor Azmin Sulaiman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Kazem Fakharian
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Tahoora Sheikhy Narany.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Sheikhy Narany, T., Ramli, M.F., Aris, A.Z. et al. Spatiotemporal variation of groundwater quality using integrated multivariate statistical and geostatistical approaches in Amol–Babol Plain, Iran. Environ Monit Assess 186, 5797–5815 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-014-3820-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-014-3820-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation