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Development history and bibliography of the US Forest Service crown-condition indicator for forest health monitoring

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Abstract

Comprehensive assessment of individual-tree crown condition by the US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) Program has its origins in the concerns about widespread forest decline in Europe and North America that developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Programs such as the US National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program, US National Vegetation Survey, Canadian Acid Rain National Early Warning System, and joint US–Canadian North American Sugar Maple Decline Project laid the groundwork for the development of the US Forest Service crown-condition indicator. The crown-condition assessment protocols were selected and refined through literature review, peer review, and field studies in several different forest types during the late 1980s and early 1990s. Between 1980 and 2011, 126 publications relating specifically to the crown-condition indicator were added to the literature. The majority of the articles were published by the US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service or other State or Federal government agency, and more than half were published after 2004.

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Abbreviations

ARNEWS:

Acid Rain National Early Warning System

EMAP:

Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program

FHM:

Forest Health Monitoring

FIA:

Forest Inventory and Analysis

ICP-Forests:

International Co-operative Programme on Assessment and Monitoring of Air Pollution Effects on Forests

NAMP:

North American Sugar Maple Decline Project

NAPAP:

National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program

NVS:

National Vegetation Survey

SE DEMO:

Southeast Loblolly/Shortleaf Pine Demonstration

UN-ECE:

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe

VDS:

Visual Damage Survey

References

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Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Bill Bechtold, Bill Burkman, Barbara Conkling, Manfred Mielke, Dale Starkey, Jim Steinman, and Ken Stolte for their assistance in outlining the chronology of the crown-condition indicator development and Barbara Conkling and Beth Schulz for their comments on the initial draft of this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 4700 Old Kingston Pike, Knoxville, TN, 37919, USA

    KaDonna C. Randolph

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  1. KaDonna C. Randolph
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Correspondence to KaDonna C. Randolph.

Appendices

Appendix : Bibliography

  1. I.

    Administration of data collection

    1. A.

      US Forest Health Monitoring Program

      1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 42, 48, 49, 52, 54, 56, 58, 59, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 82, 84, 86, 97, 98, 100, 108, 110, 111, 112, 113, 126

    2. B.

      US Forest Inventory and Analysis Program

      10, 12, 15, 16, 17, 19, 25, 27, 29, 33, 34, 35, 36, 40, 43, 44, 48, 53, 55, 57, 59, 60, 61, 78, 80, 81, 83, 85, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 110, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 121, 122, 123, 124

    3. C.

      Other

      6, 23, 38, 39, 41, 45, 46, 47, 50, 51, 79, 91, 96, 99, 105, 107, 109, 119, 120, 125

  2. II.

    Level of reporting

    1. A.

      State

      15, 16, 19, 25, 27, 29, 33, 38, 39, 40, 43, 44, 49, 53, 55, 57, 60, 61, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 87, 92, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 115, 117, 118, 122, 124

    2. B.

      Regional

      1, 7, 13, 18, 22, 26, 42, 54, 84, 88, 89, 90, 95, 98, 110, 113

    3. C.

      National

      4, 7, 34, 35, 36, 37, 83, 116

  3. III.

    Geographic location

    1. A.

      Northeastern USA (Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, Rhode Island, Vermont)

      1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 18, 20, 23, 25, 31, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 41, 42, 53, 54, 60, 61, 66, 68, 70, 71, 73, 75, 76, 83, 87, 90, 105, 108, 110, 111, 112, 116, 119, 120, 121

    2. B.

      Mid-Atlantic USA (Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia)

      1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 42, 50, 54, 55, 62, 63, 64, 67, 69, 72, 74, 77, 83, 96, 108, 110, 111, 116, 117, 118, 125

    3. C.

      Southern USA (Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia)

      1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, 19, 20, 22, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 42, 43, 45, 48, 51, 52, 56, 78, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 93, 94, 101, 102, 103, 104, 109, 111, 115, 116, 126

    4. D.

      North Central USA (Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wisconsin)

      3, 4, 7, 9, 31, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 57, 65, 79, 80, 81, 83, 87, 89, 91, 92, 110, 111, 113, 116, 122, 124

    5. E.

      Interior West USA (Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, Wyoming)

      4, 7, 11, 34, 35, 36, 37, 44, 49, 83, 95, 98, 100, 108, 114, 116

    6. F.

      West Coast USA (Alaska, California, Hawaii, Oregon, Washington)

      4, 7, 11, 24, 26, 27, 29, 34, 35, 36, 37, 40, 59, 83, 88, 108, 116, 121

    7. G.

      Caribbean USA (Puerto Rico, US Virgin Islands)

      15, 16, 17

    8. H.

      International

      31, 46, 47, 99, 107

  4. IV.

    Crown condition variables reported or utilized

    1. A.

      Crown density

      1, 2, 6, 7, 12, 13, 15, 16, 19, 20, 22, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 33, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 53, 54, 58, 60, 61, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 82, 83,84, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 109, 110, 111, 113, 115, 116, 124, 126

    2. B.

      Crown dieback

      2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 13, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 115, 116, 117, 118, 121, 122, 124, 125, 126

    3. C.

      Foliage transparency

      1, 4, 7, 13, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 60, 61, 63, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 115, 116, 122, 125, 126

    4. D.

      Sapling crown vigor

      13, 22, 24, 26, 42, 65, 88, 89, 90, 92, 95, 101, 102, 103, 106, 116, 121, 124

    5. E.

      Uncompacted live crown ratio

      10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 24, 33, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 51, 52, 56, 57, 58, 59, 63, 80, 81, 85, 96, 106, 114, 116, 119, 120, 122, 126

    6. F.

      Crown diameter

      9, 11, 12, 14, 17, 30, 33, 46, 47, 51, 52, 56, 58, 86, 106, 120, 126

    7. G.

      Composite variables

      4, 12, 30, 33, 34, 35, 36, 42, 46, 47, 52, 58, 82, 96, 106, 126

    8. H.

      Other

      9, 15, 16, 18, 21, 42, 106, 109, 116, 120, 126

  5. V.

    Quality assurance/quality control

    10, 18, 21, 30, 31, 52, 58, 106, 116

  6. VI.

    Indicator development and field method guides

    2, 5, 7, 8, 14, 28, 30, 32, 52, 58, 106

  7. VII.

    Modeling and estimation

    9, 10, 11, 14, 17, 59, 85, 86, 107, 111, 114, 123, 126

Citations

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  2. 2.

    Alexander, S. A., Carlson, J. A., & Barnard, J. E. (1992). The visual damage survey: a study to evaluate the eastern forest condition. In D. H. McKenzie, D. E. Hyatt, & V. J. McDonald (Eds.), Ecological indicators (pp. 361–372). New York, NY: Elsevier Applied Science.

  3. 3.

    Alexander, S. A., & Palmer, C. J. (1999). Forest health monitoring in the United States: First four years. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 55, 267–277.

  4. 4.

    Ambrose, M. J. (2004). Criterion 3—maintenance of ecosystem health and vitality: Indicator 17: Area and percentage of forest land with diminished biological components indicative of changes in fundamental ecological processes and/or ecological continuity. In D. R. Darr (Coord.), Data report: A supplement to the national report on sustainable forests—2003. FS-766A. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. http://www.fs.fed.us/research/sustain/2003SustaintabilityReport/summariesandsupporting%20analyses.htm. Accessed 20 January 2006.

  5. 5.

    Anderson, R. L., & Belanger, R. P. (1987). A crown rating method for assessing tree vigor of loblolly and shortleaf pines. In D. R. Phillips (Comp.), Proceedings of the fourth biennial southern silvicultural research conference; 1986 November 4–6, Atlanta, GA (pp. 538–543). Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-42.

  6. 6.

    Applegate, J. R., & Steinman, J. (2005). A comparison of tree health among forest types and conditions at Fort A.P. Hill, Virginia. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry, 29, 143–147.

  7. 7.

    Bechtold, W., Randolph, K., & Zarnoch, S. (2009). The power of FIA phase 3 crown-indicator variables to detect change. In W. McWilliams, G. Moisen, R. Czaplewski, (Comps.), Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) Symposium 2008; October 21–23, 2008; Park City, UT. Proc. RMRS-P-56CD. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.

  8. 8.

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  9. 9.

    Bechtold, W. A. (2003). Crown-diameter prediction models for 87 species of stand-grown trees in the Eastern United States. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry, 27, 269–278.

  10. 10.

    Bechtold, W. A. (2003). Crown position and light exposure classification—an alternative to field-assigned crown class. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry, 20, 154–160.

  11. 11.

    Bechtold, W. A. (2004). Largest-crown-width prediction models for 53 species in the Western United States. Western Journal of Applied Forestry, 19, 245–251.

  12. 12.

    Bechtold, W. A., & Coulston, J. W. (2005). Detection monitoring of crown condition in South Carolina: A case study. In R. E. McRoberts, G. A Reams, P. C. Van Deusen, & W. H. McWilliams (Eds.), Proceedings of the fifth annual forest inventory and analysis symposium; 2003 November 18–20; New Orleans, LA. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-69.

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  14. 14.

    Bechtold, W. A., Mielke, M. E., & Zarnoch, S. J. (2002). Comparison of field methods and models to estimate mean crown diameter. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry, 19, 177–182.

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    Brandeis, T. J., Helmer, E. H., & Oswalt, S. N. (2007). The status of Puerto Rico’s forests, 2003. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Resour. Bull. SRS-119.

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    Brandeis, T. J., Randolph, K. C., & Strub, M. R. (2009). Modeling Caribbean tree stem diameters from tree height and crown width measurements. International Journal of Mathematical and Computational Forestry & Natural-Resource Sciences, 1, 78–85.

  18. 18.

    Brooks, R. T., Dickson, D. R., Burkman, W. B., Millers, I., Miller-Weeks, M., Cooter, E., & Smith, L. (1992). Forest health monitoring in New England: 1990 annual report. Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Resour. Bull. NE-125.

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    Burkman, W. G., & Bechtold, W. A. (2000). Has Virginia pine declined? The use of Forest Health Monitoring and other information in the determination. In M. Hansen & T. Burk (Eds.), Integrated tools for natural resources inventories in the 21st century: an international conference on the inventory and monitoring of forested ecosystems; 1998 August 16–19; Boise, ID (pp. 258–264). St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station, Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-212.

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Randolph, K.C. Development history and bibliography of the US Forest Service crown-condition indicator for forest health monitoring. Environ Monit Assess 185, 4977–4993 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-2919-z

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