Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Groundwater stress and vulnerability in rural coastal aquifers under competing demands: a case study from Sri Lanka

  • Published:
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Rural coastal aquifers are undergoing rapid changes due to increasing population, high water demand with expanding agricultural and domestic uses, and seawater intrusion due to unmanaged water pumping. The combined impact of these activities is the deterioration of groundwater quality, public health concerns, and unsustainable water demands. The Kalpitiya peninsula located northwest of Sri Lanka is one area undergoing such changes. This land area is limited and surrounded almost completely by sea and lagoon. This study consists of groundwater sampling and analysis, and vulnerability assessment using the DRASTIC method. The results reveal that the peninsula is experiencing multiple threats due to population growth, seawater intrusion, land use exploitation for intensive agriculture, groundwater vulnerability from agricultural and domestic uses, and potential public health impacts. Results show that nitrate is a prevalent and serious contaminant occurring in large concentrations (up to 128 mg/l NO3–N), while salinity from seawater intrusion produces high chloride content (up to 471 mg/l), affecting freshwater sources. High nitrate levels may have already affected public health based on limited sampling for methemoglobin. The two main sources of nitrogen loadings in the area are fertilizer and human excreta. The major source of nitrogen results from the use of fertilizers and poor management of intense agricultural systems where a maximum application rate of up to 11.21 metric tons N/km2 per season is typical. These findings suggest that management of coastal aquifers requires an integrated approach to address both the prevalence of agriculture as an economic livelihood, and increasing population growth.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Al-Zabet, T. (2002). Evaluation of aquifer vulnerability to contamination potential using the DRASTIC method. Environmental Geology, 43, 203–208. doi:10.1007/s00254-002-0645-5.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aller, L., Bennett, T., Lehr, J. H., & Petty, R. J. (1985). DRASTIC: A standardized system for evaluating groundwater pollution potential using hydrogeologic settings. U.S. EPA, Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory, Ada, OK, EPA/600/2–85/0108, 576, 163.

  • Assouline, S., & Shavit, U. (2004). Effects of management policies, including artificial recharge, on salinization in a sloping aquifer: The Israeli Coastal Aquifer case. Water Resources Research, 40, W04101. doi:10.1029/2003WR002290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Babiker, I. S., Mohamed, M. A. A., Hiyama, T., & Kato, K. (2005). A GIS based DRASTIC model for assessing aquifer vulnerability in Kakamigahara Heights, Gifu Prefecture, Central Japan. Science of the Total Environment, 345, 127–140

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Crites, R., & Tchobanoglous, G. (1998). Small and decentralized wastewater management systems. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Custodio, E., & Bruggeman, G. A. (1987). Groundwater problems in coastal areas. UNESCO, Paris. Studies and Reports in Hydrology, 45, 576.

    Google Scholar 

  • Department of Census and Statistics (2002). Census of agriculture 2002 (small holding sector), Puttalam district, preliminary report (Colombo, State Printing Corporation) (pp. 7–8).

  • Fritch, T. G., McKnight, C. L., Yelderman, J. C., & Arnold, J. G. (2000). An aquifer vulnerability assessment of the Paluxy aquifer, Central Texas, USA, using GIS and a modified DRASTIC approach. Environment Management, 25, 337–345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gupta, S. K., Gupta, R. C., Gupta, A. B., Seth, A. K., Bassin, J. K., & Gupta, A. (1999). Adaptation of cytochrome-b5 reductase activity and methaemoglobinaemia in areas with high nitrate concentration in drinking water. Bulletin of the World Health Organization: The International Journal of Public Health, 77(9), 749–753.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hem, J. D. (1985). Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural water (3rd ed.). U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2254, 263.

  • Hwang, S. H., Yun, S. T., Park, I. H., Shin, J. H., Shin, K. S., & Lee, S. K. (2003). Investigation for regional saltwater intrusion of Western and Southern coastal area in South Korea. In Proc. 80th meeting of Korea Society of geosystems engineering (p. 413).

  • Jamrah, A., Al-Futaisi, A., Rajmohan, N., & Al-Yaroubi, S. (2008). Assessment of groundwater vulnerability in the coastal region of Oman using DRASTIC index method in GIS environment. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 147, 125–138. doi:10.1007/s10661-007-0104-6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, Y. J., & Hamm, S. (1999). Assessment of the potential for ground water contamination using the DRASTIC/EGIS technique, Cheongju area, South Korea. Hydrogeology Journal, 7(2), 227–235

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuruppuarachchi, D. S. P. (1995). Impact of irrigated agriculture on groundwater resources of Sri Lanka. Proc. Sri Lanka Association for Advancement of Science, 51, 53–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liang, C. P., Lin, C. W., Jang, C. S., & Chen, J. S. (2009). Assessment of contamination potential of nitrate-N in natural recharging aquifers of the Choushui River alluvial fan, Taiwan: Development and prediction of a modified GIS-based DRASTIC model. Geophysical Research, 11, EGU 2009–1942.

  • Michael, H. A., Mulligan, A. E., & Harvey, C. F. (2005). Seasonal oscillations in water exchange between aquifers and the coastal ocean. Nature, 436, 1145–1148. doi:10.1038/nature03935.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • National Research Council (1995). Nitrate and nitrite in drinking water. Subcommittee on Nitrate and Nitrite in Drinking Water, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission on Life Science. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nobre, R. C. M., Rotunno Filho, O. C., Mansur, W. J., Nobre, M. M. M., & Cosenza, C. A. N. (2007). Groundwater vulnerability and risk mapping using GIS, modeling and a fuzzy logic tool. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 94, 277–292. doi:10.1016/j.jconhyd.2007.07.008.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Richards, W. F. (1990). Land transformation. In B. L. Turner, W. C. Clark, W. B. Meyer, & R. W. Kates (Eds.), The earth as transformed by human action (pp. 561–575). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scanlon, B. R., Reedy, R. C., Stonestrom, D. A., Prudic, D. E., & Dennehy, K. F. (2005). Impact of land use and land cover change on groundwater recharge and quality in the southwestern US. Global Change Biology, 11, 1577–1593. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2005.01026.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Science Daily (2007a). Climate change threatens drinking water, as rising sea penetrates coastal aquifers. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/11/071106164744.htm. Accessed 02 June 2008.

  • Science Daily (2007b). Seawater intrusion is the first cause of contamination of coastal aquifers. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/07/070727091903.htm. Accessed 10 June 2008.

  • Sherif, M. M., & Singh, V. P. (1999). Effect of climate change on sea water intrusion in coastal aquifers. Hydrological Processes, 13(8), 1277–1287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shukla, S., Mostaghimi, S., Shanholt, V. O., Collins, M. C., & Ross, B. B. (2000). A county-level assessment of ground water contamination by pesticides. Ground water monitoring review, 20(1), 104–119.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shuttleworth, W. J. (1993). Evaporation. In D. R. Maidment (Ed.), Handbook of hydrology (pp. 4.1–4.53). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stumm, W., & Morgan, J. J. (1996). Aquatic chemistry (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suarez, D. L., Wood, J. D., & Lesch, S. M. (2008). Infiltration into cropped soils: Effect of rain and sodium adsorption ratio-impacted irrigation water. Journal of Environmental Quality, 37, S-169–S-179. doi:10.2134/jeq2007.0468.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tilman, D., Fargione, J., Wolff, B., D’Antonio, C., Dobson, A., Howarth, R., et al. (2001). Forecasting agriculturally driven global environmental change. Science, 292(5515), 281–284. doi:10.1126/science.1057544.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Todd, D. K., & Mays, L. W. (2005). Groundwater hydrology (3rd ed., p. 93). Wiley: New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • US EPA (1992). Establishing treatment system performance requirements. Onsite wastewater treatment manual, EPA/625/R-00/008, 3–11. http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/pubs/625r00008/625R00008totaldocument.pdf. Accessed 08 March 2009.

  • US EPA (2003). National primary drinking water standards. EPA816-F-03-016. http://www.epa.gov/safewater/contaminants/index.html. Accessed 05 March 2009.

  • US EPA (2006). Integrated Risk Information Systems (IRIS). http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris/index.cfm?fuseaction=iris.showSubstanceList. Accessed 31 July 2009.

  • van Gilse, N. C. O., Villholth, K. G., & Manamperi, S. (2008). Natural hydro-geological support and limitations, based on geoelectrical measurements, to utilization of fresh groundwater resources in the Kalpitiya Peninsula, Sri Lanka. Report to the Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration, Canada.

  • van Maanen, J. M., van Dijk, A., Mulder, K., de Baets, M. H., Menheere, P. C., & van der Heide, D. (1994). Consumption of drinking water with high nitrate levels causes hypertrophy of the thyroid. Toxicology Letters, 72, 365–374.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Maanen, J. M., Welle, I. J., Hageman, G., Dallinga, W., Mertens, P. L., & Kleinjans, J. C. (1996). Nitrate contamination of drinking water: Relationship with HPRT variant frequency in lymphocyte DNA and urinary excretion of N-nitrosamines. Environment Health Perspectives, 104, 522–528.

    Google Scholar 

  • Werner, A. D., & Simmons, C. T. (2009). Impact of sea-level rise on sea water intrusion in coastal aquifers. Ground Water, 47(2), 197–204. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6584.2008.00535.x.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Werz, H., & Hötzl, H. (2007). Groundwater risk intensity mapping in semi-arid regions using optical remote sensing data as an additional tool. Hydrogeology Journal, 15, 1031–1049.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (World Health Organization) (1998). Guidelines for drinking water quality (2nd ed.). Recommendations, 1.

  • WHO (World Health Organization) (2003). Guidelines for drinking-water quality—Chloride in drinking-water. World Health Organization, Geneva. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/chloride.pdf. Accessed 27 January 2009.

  • WHO (World Health Organization) (2008). Health situation in the South-East Asia Region, 1998–2000. http://www.searo.who.int/EN/Section1243/Section1382/Section1386/Section1898_9239.htm. Accessed 03 November 2008.

  • World Bank (2007). Project appraisal document to the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka for a Puttalam housing project sustainable development, South Asia region, Report No: 38147-LK.

  • Yakirevich, A., Melloul, A., Sorek, S., Shath, S., & Borisov, V. (1998). Simulation of seawater intrusion into the Khan Yunis area of the Gaza Strip coastal aquifer. Hydrogeology Journal, 6(4), 549–559.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. College of Engineering, Utah State University, 4100 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT, 84322-4100, USA

    Dumindu L. Jayasekera & Jagath J. Kaluarachchi

  2. Department of Hydrology, GEUS (Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland), Øster Voldgade 10, 1350, Copenhagen, Denmark

    Karen G. Villholth

Authors
  1. Dumindu L. Jayasekera
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jagath J. Kaluarachchi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Karen G. Villholth
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Dumindu L. Jayasekera.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Jayasekera, D.L., Kaluarachchi, J.J. & Villholth, K.G. Groundwater stress and vulnerability in rural coastal aquifers under competing demands: a case study from Sri Lanka. Environ Monit Assess 176, 13–30 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1563-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1563-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation