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Mobility, bioaccessibility, pollution assessment and risk characterization of potentially toxic metals in the urban soil of Lahore, Pakistan

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Abstract

The present study is based on the measurement of potentially toxic metal contents employing various extraction methodologies aimed at the evaluation of their mobility, bioaccessibility and bioavailability in the urban soil (n = 56) of Lahore, Pakistan. Selected metal levels in the soil were quantified using flame atomic absorption spectrometry. On the average basis, aqua regia and glycine extracts revealed comparatively higher contents for most of the metals; average concentrations of Fe, Mn, Zn, Pb, Cu, Cr, Co and Cd were found at 1566, 451.1, 114.8, 52.84, 39.15, 24.82, 12.59 and 3.953 mg/kg in aqua regia extract, while in glycine extract the metal levels were found at 579.6, 174.2, 74.72, 49.74, 19.28, 7.103, 4.692 and 3.357 mg/kg, respectively. However, Cd, Pb, Cu and Zn showed significantly higher mobility and bioavailability in the soil, while Co, Fe and Mn were least mobile/bioavailable. The pollution index was assessed in terms of enrichment factor and modified degree of contamination which revealed severe to significant contamination and anthropogenic enrichment of Cd, Pb, Cu and Zn. Multivariate analysis showed mostly anthropogenic contributions for Zn–Cu–Cr–Pb–Cd. Health risk assessment revealed relatively higher exposure of the metals through ingestion, while only minor contributions were noted for inhalation and dermal contact. Hazard quotient index was within the safe limit (< 1.0) in all soil extractions, thereby indicating no significant non-carcinogenic health risks. The incremental lifetime cancer risk for Cr (4.1E-06) through ingestion was comparatively higher than the safe limit which showed significant lifetime cancer risk to the local population.

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Data availability

The datasets analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The research facilities provided by Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan, to carry out this project are thankfully acknowledged.

Funding

This study was partially funded by Higher Education Commission, Government of Pakistan, and Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan.

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  1. Department of Chemistry, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, 45320, Pakistan

    Yasir Karim Khan & Munir H. Shah

  2. Department of Earth Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, 45320, Pakistan

    Muhammad Toqeer

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YKK was involved in the methodology, investigation, data curation, validation and writing original draft. MT contributed to the software, formal analysis, reviewing and editing. MHS helped in the conceptualization, visualization, resources, formal analysis, supervision, writing/reviewing and editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Khan, Y.K., Toqeer, M. & Shah, M.H. Mobility, bioaccessibility, pollution assessment and risk characterization of potentially toxic metals in the urban soil of Lahore, Pakistan. Environ Geochem Health 45, 1391–1412 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-022-01270-4

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