Abstract
Individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) experience impairments in a number of functional domains. Although current evidence-based treatments for ADHD reduce symptoms and improve academic and behavioral functioning, they have minimal impact on social functioning or on risky behaviors (see Evans et al. in J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol, 43:527–551, 2014 for review). Preliminary evidence indicates that emotion dysregulation (ED) is associated with impairments across the developmental spectrum, such as social impairment and risky behaviors, and that its relative absence/presence is differentially associated with treatment response. It thus stands to reason that by incorporating a focus on ED in interventions targeting social impairment and risky behaviors, we may be able to increase the number of youth who respond to such interventions and decrease the prevalence or degree of these impairments and behaviors among youth and adults with ADHD. However, a number of questions remain unaddressed about the association between ADHD and ED, such as the portion of individuals with ADHD who experience ED, the extent to which ED is associated with the above impairments and behaviors, and whether or not ED is malleable. To begin addressing these questions, we summarize and critically evaluate the literature on the association between ADHD and ED and make recommendations for future basic, translational, and treatment outcome research.
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Notes
We use the word “steps” for purposes of manageability with regard to wording our ensuing discussion. It is important to note that in doing so, we do not intend to convey that emotion regulation is not a dynamic process (as we believe it is).
Discomfort with one’s own emotions and negative beliefs about the effects and after-effects of those emotions.
The sample was comprised of youth with depression, conduct problems, comorbid depression/conduct problems, or no psychiatric condition. Participants were between the ages of 13–17 years and were 61 % female, 53 % Caucasian, 19 % Hispanic, 15 % Asian, 11 % African American, and 3 % mixed racial heritage. ED was measured via self-report on the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS). Psychological problems were measured via self-report on the Patient Health Questionnaire-Adolescent (PHQ-A).
Respiratory sinus arrhythmia was measured during a 5-min resting baseline, followed by a 3-min video clip from the movie The Champ, in which a young child witnesses and reacts to the death of his father. This film clip has been demonstrated to evoke sadness (see Gross and Levenson 1995) and to result in physiological reactivity—including changes in RSA—that are consistent with individual differences in ER abilities.
For example, heightened intensity of emotions and generalized anxiety symptoms r = .27 and social anxiety symptoms r = −.07; poor understanding of emotions and generalized anxiety symptoms r = .17 and social anxiety symptoms r = .32; negative reactivity to emotions and generalized anxiety symptoms r = .31 and social anxiety symptoms r = .37 (Mennin et al. 2007).
According to Barkley (1997), “circumstances or tasks that involve temporal delays, conflicts in temporally related consequences, or the generation of novel responses” are the ones that most heavily tax the type of behavioral inhibition relevant to ADHD. “Tasks requiring resistance to temptation or deferred gratification are of this sort. Among the several dimensions of impulsivity discovered in past research (behavioral and cognitive-motor, typically) … it is that dimension reflected in deferred gratification and resistance to temptation, or what others have also called ‘behavioral inhibition’, that is associated with the inhibitory processes” implicated in ADHD (p. 68).
Due to the possibility that with small sample sizes there would be power limitations to detecting such small effect sizes in subsample comparisons, we revisited Maedgen and Carlson’s data. In their study, Maedgen and Carlson found a statistically significant difference across subtypes of ADHD. Of note, the sample size in that study was smaller (Maedgen and Carlson 2000; ADHD-C = 16, ADHD-I = 14) than the size of our (Bunford et al. 2014) sample. Yet, between-group comparisons yielded statistically significant differences, indicating that effect sizes may have been substantial. We thus calculated effect sizes (Cohen’s d) for both the data obtained by Maedgen and Carlson and our own data. These range from .44 to 1.1 in the Maedgen and Carlson study and from .02 to .32 in the Bunford et al. (2014) study. Thus, although Maedgen and Carlson obtained medium to large effect differences with a sample that was ~ 1/4th of ours, we obtained small effect differences only. This indicates that our not having found group differences may not be a function of the size of our sample but, rather, reflects a true absence of a difference.
Nigg (2010; p. 25) argues that ADHD is a combination of problems in both bottom-up (e.g., emotion generation) and top-down (e.g., emotion control) control systems […] and that “what psychopathologists call attention problems reflects difficulty in regulation, constraint, and effortful control, whereas impulsivity and perhaps hyperactivity are related to breakdown in incentive response systems”.
Note that findings on PNS abnormalities among youth with externalizing problems are consistent across studies but those on SNS abnormalities are not. One explanation for these mixed results pertains to the type of experimental task employed. For example, Beauchaine et al. (2007) and Calkins (1997) used reward-based tasks, which engage the SNS more so than the PNS (Musser et al. 2011). Conversely, Musser and colleagues focused specifically on emotion regulation (as opposed to an association between changes in ANS functioning at baseline and externalizing behavior) and employed a negative and positive mood induction and suppression paradigm. It might be the case that youth with ADHD exhibit different PNS and SNS activity than typically developing peers during a baseline condition but demonstrate only PNS abnormalities during an emotion regulation task. Finally, Musser and colleagues’ sample included children with ADHD, whereas a broadly conceptualized externalizing sample was included in Beauchaine et al. (2007), Calkins (1997), and Crowell et al. (2006). This is noteworthy because, despite the common behavioral co-occurrence, it is not clear that ADHD and externalizing problems are the same in terms of ANS abnormalities (e.g., Musser et al. 2011).
But boys with ADHD + high aggression were different in terms of their ED from boys with ADHD + low aggression and from boys without ADHD.
Of note, the empirical findings of Banaschewski et al. (2012) did not support the notion that performance on measures of these functions explains the association of ADHD and emotional lability.
Although this is not an exhaustive list of available measures, it is a list of commonly used measures for which there is considerable psychometric data available.
A child with depression may demonstrate stable but intensely negative emotional states.
“Child cognitively reinterprets the situation to find a tenable way, or sees a bright side, for example, “Even though I can’t finish, the model, I can still have fun.” Alternatively, he makes verbal statements or behaves in a way that indicates acceptance of the given conditions of the task, for example, shrugs shoulders and says ‘its okay’” (Melnick and Hinshaw 2000; p. 77).
“Child makes statements or expressions focusing on the negative, threatening, or uncontrollable aspects of the task, for example, blames others or complains he won’t win the prize” (Melnick and Hinshaw 2000; p. 78).
Marginally significant finding.
Those who hold high levels of negative mood regulation expectancies believe that their coping efforts will improve affect, whereas those with low negative mood regulation expectancies believe that their efforts will have little effect on their on their feelings of distress.
Defined here as emotional restraint, which is a way of managing negative emotions by suppression.
Although childhood conduct problems did contribute significantly to risky sexual behaviors among participants with ADHD, there was also an independent contribution of ADHD.
The eight-item ED subscale of this measure demonstrated both excellent internal consistency and external validity, as indicated by significant correlations between scores on the subscale and impairment on measures assessing quality of life and social functioning.
Participants in this study were conceptualized as exhibiting ED if their self-ratings on the ED subscale were at least as impaired as the worst 5 % of ratings among individuals without ADHD.
ADHD symptoms were measured on a modified version of the DuPaul Rating Scale. Emotional lability was measured on the parent-rated Conner’s 10-item scale and indexed by four items “demands must be met immediately—easily frustrated,” “cries often and easily,” “mood changes quickly and drastically,” and “temper outbursts, explosive, and unpredictable behavior”.
According to Linehan (1993), chronic and pervasive emotion dysregulation is considered the core feature and core difficulty in BPD and related disorders rather than a “symptom” of the disorder.
For more a more detailed discussion on more specific invalidating processes [i.e., invalidation of emotions, thoughts, wants, and other internal or private behaviors; invalidation of overt or public behavior; minimizing difficulties, invalidation of a sense of self and self-initiated behavior] and the effects of chronic and pervasive invalidation developmentally, see Fruzzetti et al. (2005).
Thirty-two adolescents completed a16-week group DBT skills training program and pre- and post-treatment measures. All components of the core mindfulness, interpersonal effectiveness, emotion regulation, and distress tolerance modules from Linehan (1993) DBT manual were taught with age-appropriate modifications (Nelson-Gray et al. 2006).
In CERT, clinicians are able to "match" the intervention to children's emotion regulatory needs and symptoms. Therapists work with children to complete in-session activities and with parents to teach them how to coach the child during the week. Outside of sessions, children complete “homework” assignments with guidance and support from their parents. CERT involves 22 sessions occurring over 6 months with 6- to 12-month follow-up after treatment ends.
In Hesslinger et al. (2002), all participants were selected on the basis of ADHD-status, but ED was not measured. The program consisted of a 13-week group psychoeducation and skills program delivered for 2 h a week. DBT was modified for adults with ADHD to include psychoeducation on the neurobiology of ADHD, medications for ADHD, dependency, self-respect, and the role of ADHD symptoms in relationships as well as skills training in mindfulness, functional behavior analysis, impulse control, emotion regulation, and stress management.
Consisting of a 15-minute individual pre-group motivation-enhancing meeting, eight weekly 90-minute group skills training sessions and seven weekly 10- to 15-minute individual coaching phone calls focused on skills generalization. A 90-minute group booster session was held during the first week of the follow-up quarter. DBT groups skills training included psychoeducation and skills trainings in goal setting, daily planner use, task prioritization and chunking, environment restructuring, using social support, managing sleep, eating, and exercise habits, mindfulness, emotion regulation such as opposite action, planning for high-demand periods, and planning for skill maintenance.
Students in the handouts condition were provided with a self-help booklet that contained information on psychoeducation about ADHD, organization, planning, time management, environment restructuring, and stress management.
Barkley and Fischer (2010) found that, among adults with ADHD (assessed for the association between emotional impulsivity and educational outcomes at age 27 years), emotional impulsivity predicted having completed less education as well as more school expulsions and suspensions, above and beyond ADHD symptoms. Emotional impulsivity was further negatively associated with graduation from high school and from college, above and beyond ADHD symptoms. Of note, only emotional impulsivity (and not ADHD symptoms) predicted school expulsions and suspensions and only emotional impulsivity was negatively related to graduation from high school.
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Acknowledgments
During the preparation of this article, the first author was supported in parts by the Elizabeth Munsterberg Koppitz Dissertation Fellowship, awarded by the American Psychological Foundation. The second author was supported in parts by grants from the Institute of Educational Sciences (R324A120003; R324A120272; R305A140356). The contents of this article do not necessarily represent the views of the American Psychological Foundation or Institute for Education Sciences and do not imply endorsement by the federal government. We would like to thank Dr. Seán T. MacDermott for sharing unpublished data.
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Bunford, N., Evans, S.W. & Wymbs, F. ADHD and Emotion Dysregulation Among Children and Adolescents. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 18, 185–217 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-015-0187-5
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-015-0187-5