Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Exposure routes and health effects of heavy metals on children

  • Published:
BioMetals Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Heavy metals are naturally existing elements that have relatively high atomic weight and a minimum density five times the density of water. Heavy metals have extensive applications in industries, homes, agriculture and medicine, leading to their wide distribution in the environment. Most heavy metals are reported to be highly toxic. They also have numerous exposure routes, including ingestion, inhalation, and dermal absorption, subsequently inducing some health effects resulting from human and heavy metals contact. The implications of heavy metals with regards to children’s health have been noted to be more severe compared to adults. The element’s harmful consequences on children health include mental retardation, neurocognitive disorders, behavioral disorders, respiratory problems, cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Much attention should be given to heavy metals because of their high toxicity potential, widespread use, and prevalence. This review therefore examines the exposure routes and health effects of mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), and barium (Ba) on children. In addition, their toxic mechanisms are elucidated.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aaseth J, Ajsuvakova O, Skalny A, Skalnaya M, Tinkov A (2018) Chelator combination as therapeutic strategy in mercury and lead poisonings. Coord Chem Rev 358:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2017.12.011

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Absalon D, Ślesak B (2010) The effects of changes in cadmium and lead air pollution on cancer incidence in children. Sci Total Environ 408(20):4420–4428

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beaumont JJ, Sedman RM, Reynolds SD, Sherman CD, Li LH, Howd RA, Sandy MS, Zeise L, Alexeeff GV (2008) Cancer mortality in a Chinese population exposed to hexavalent chromium in drinking water. Epidemiology 19(1):12–23

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beckley AL, Caspi A, Broadbent J (2018) Association of childhood blood lead levels with criminal offending. JAMA Pediatr 172(2):166–173. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2017.4005

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berlin M, Zalups RK, Fowler BA (2015) Mercury. Handbook on the toxicology of metals, pp 1013–1075. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-59453-2.00046-9

  • Boonprasert K, Vesey DA, Gobe GC, Ruenweerayut R, Johnson DW, Na-Bangchang K, Satarug S (2018) Is renal tubular cadmium toxicity clinically relevant? Clin Kidney J. https://doi.org/10.1093/ckj/sfx153

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Broussard LA, Ph D, Hammett-Stabler CA, Ph D, Winecker RE, Jeri P, Ropero-Miller D, Ph D (2002) The toxicology of mercury. Lab Med 33(8):614–625

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buters J, Biedermann T (2017) Chromium (VI) contact dermatitis: getting closer to understanding the underlying mechanisms of toxicity and sensitization! J Investig Dermatol 137(2):274–277

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cai L-M, Wang Q-S, Luo J, Chen L-G, Zhu R-L, Wang S, Tang C-H (2019) Heavy metal contamination and health risk assessment for children near a large Cu-smelter in central China. Sci Total Environ 650:725–733. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.081

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Calabresea E, Iavicoli I, Calabrese V, Cory-Slechtad D, Giordanoe J (2018) Elemental mercury neurotoxicity and clinical recovery of function: a review of findings, and implications for occupational health. Environ Res 163:134–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2018.01.021

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Centre for Disease Control (2007) Medical Management Guidelines (MMGs): Barium. Retrieved from https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/MMG/MMG.asp?id=321&tid=57

  • Centre for Disease Control (2013) Chromium toxicity what are the physiologic effects of chromium exposure. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov

  • Centre for Disease Control (2015) Low level lead exposure harms children: a renewed call for primary prevention. https://www.cdc.gov

  • Chunhabundit R (2016) Cadmium exposure and potential health risk from foods in a contaminated area, Thailand. Toxicol Res 32(1):65–72. https://doi.org/10.5487/TR.2016.32.1.065

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dayan AD, Paine AJ (2001) Mechanisms of chromium toxicity, carcinogenicity and allergenicity: review of the literature from 1985 to 2000. Hum Exp Toxicol 20(9):439–451. https://doi.org/10.1191/096032701682693062

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dietrich KN, Douglas RM, Succopa PA, Berger OG, Bornscheina RL (2001) Early exposure to lead and juvenile delinquency. Neurotoxicol Teratol 23(6):511–518

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Díez S, Delgado S, Aguilera I, Astray J, Pérez-Gómez B, Torrent M, Sunyer J, Bayona JM (2009) Prenatal and early childhood exposure to mercury and methylmercury in Spain, a high-fish-consumer country. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 56(3):615–622

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Do SY, Lee CG, Kim JY, Moon YH, Kim MS, Bae IH, Song HS (2017) Cases of acute mercury poisoning by mercury vapor exposure during the demolition of a fluorescent lamp factory. Ann Occup Environ Med 29:19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40557-017-0184-x

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Evens A, Hryhorczuk D, Lanphear BP, Rankin KM, Lewis KA, Forst L, Rosenberg D (2015) The impact of low-level lead toxicity on school performance among children in the Chicago Public Schools: a population-based retrospective cohort study. Environ Health. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-015-0008-9

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Feigenbaum JJ, Muller C (2016) Lead exposure and violent crime in the early twentieth century. Explor Econ Hist 62:51–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eeh.2016.03.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fergusson DM, Boden JM, Horwood LJ (2008) Exposure to childhood sexual and physical abuse and adjustment in early adulthood. Child Abuse Negl 32(6):607–619

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flora G, Gupta D, Tiwari A (2012) Toxicity of lead: a review with recent updates. Interdiscip Toxicol 5(2):47–58. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10102-012-0009-2

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gardner RM, Kippler M, Tofail F, Bottai M, Hamadani J, Grandér M, Nermell B, Palm B, Rasmussen K, Vahter M (2013) Environmental exposure to metals and children’s growth to age 5 years: a prospective cohort study. Am J Epidemiol 177(12):1356–1367. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kws437

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Goyer RA, Liu J, Waalkes MP (2004) Cadmium and cancer of prostate and testis. Biometals 17(5):555–558

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Habiba G, Abebe G, Bravo AG, Ermias D, Staffan Ǻ, Bishop K (2017) Mercury human exposure in populations living around Lake Tana (Ethiopia). Biol Trace Elem Res 175(2):237–243

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Halasova E, Matakova T, Kavcova E, Musak L, Letkova L, Adamkov M, Ondrusova M, Bukovska E, Singliar A (2009) Human lung cancer and hexavalent chromium exposure. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 30:182–185

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamzah NA, MohdTamrin SB, Ismail NH (2016) Metal dust exposure and lung function deterioration among steelworkers: an exposure-response relationship. Int J Occup Environ Health 22(3):224–232

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hartwig A (2013) Cadmium and cancer. In: Sigel A, Sigel H, Sigel R (eds) Cadmium: from toxicity to essentiality. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 491–507

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • He K, Wang S, Zhang J (2009) Blood lead levels of children and its trend in China. Sci Total Environ 407(13):3986–3993. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.03.018

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hong SB, Im MH, Kim JW, Park EJ, Shin MS, Kim BN, Yoo HJ et al (2015) Environmental lead exposure and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptom domains in a community sample of South Korean school-age children. Environ Health Perspect 123(3):271

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huang X, Law S, Li D, Xin Yu, Li B (2014) Mercury poisoning: a case of a complex neuropsychiatric illness. Am J Psychiatry 171(12):1253–1256

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jeon JY, Ha KH, Kim DJ (2015) New risk factors for obesity and diabetes: environmental chemicals. J Diabetes Invest 6(2):109–111

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jeppesen C, Valera B, Nielsen NO, Bjerregaard P, Jørgensen ME (2015) Association between whole blood mercury and glucose intolerance among adult Inuit in Greenland. Environ Res 143:192–197

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jia G, Aroor AR, Martinez-Lemus LA, Sowers JR (2015) Mitochondrial functional impairment in response to environmental toxins in the cardiorenal metabolic syndrome. Arch Toxicol 89(2):147–153

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kampa M, Castanas E (2008) Human health effects of air pollution. Environ Pollut 151(2):362–367

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaur S, Kaur A, Singh G, Bhatti R (2018) Mercurius solubilis attenuates scopolamine-induced memory deficits and enhances the motor coordination in mice. Int J Neurosci 128(3):219–230

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim K-N, Kwon H-J, Hong Y-C (2016) Low-level lead exposure and autistic behaviors in school-age children. Neurotoxicology 53:193–200

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kippler M, Tofail F, Hamadani JD, Gardner RM, Grantham-McGregor SM, Bottai M, Vahter M (2012) Early-Life cadmium exposure and child development in 5-year-old girls and boys: a cohort study in rural Bangladesh. Environ Health Perspect 120(10):1462–1468. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104431

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lanphear BP, Hornung R, Khoury J, Yolton K, Baghurst P, Bellinger DC, Canfield RL et al (2005) Low-level environmental lead exposure and children’s intellectual function: an international pooled analysis. Environ Health Perspect 113(7):894

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Liu Y, McDermott S, Lawson A, Aelion CM (2010) The relationship between mental retardation and developmental delays in children and the levels of arsenic, mercury and lead in soil samples taken near their mother’s residence during pregnancy. Int J Hyg Environ Health 213(2):116–123

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mahmud HN, Huq AK, Yahya R (2016) The removal of Heavy metals ions from wastewater/aqueous solution using polypyrrole-based adsorbents: a review. RSC Adv 6(18):14778–14791

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mason LH, Harp JP, Han DY (2014) Pb neurotoxicity: neuropsychological effects of lead toxicity. BioMed Res Int 2014:840547–840547. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/840547

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer M, Rogers C (2018) The relationship between exposure to lead and criminal behavior

  • Mohamed FE, Zaky EA, El-Sayed AB, Elhossieny RM, Zahra SS, Eldin WS, Youssef WY, Khaled RA, Youssef AM (2015) Assessment of hair aluminum, lead, and mercury in a sample of autistic Egyptian children: environmental risk factors of Heavy metals in autism. Behav Neurol 2:4. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/545674

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Myers GJ, Thurston SW, Pearson AT, Davidson PW, Cox C, Shamlaye CF, Cernichiari E, Clarkson TW (2009) Postnatal exposure to methyl mercury from fish consumption: a review and new data from the Seychelles Child Development Study. Neurotoxicology 30(3):338–349

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Navas-Acien A, Selvin E, Sharrett AR, Calderon-Aranda E, Silbergeld E, Guallar E (2004) Lead, cadmium, smoking, and increased risk of peripheral arterial disease. Circulation 109(25):3196–3201

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nawrot T, Plusquin M, Hogervorst J, Roels HA, Celis H, Thijs L, Vangronsveld J, Van Hecke E, Staessen JA (2006) Environmental exposure to cadmium and risk of cancer: a prospective population-based study. Lancet Oncol 7(2):119–126

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neghab M, Azad P, Zarei F, Ghaderi E (2015) Acute and chronic respiratory effects of chromium mists. J Health Sci Surveill Syst 3(3):119–124

    Google Scholar 

  • Nemsadze K, Sanikidze T, Ratiani L, Gabunia L, Sharashenidze T (2009) Mechanisms of lead-induced poisoning. Georgian Med News 172–173:92–96

    Google Scholar 

  • Oken E, Bellinger DC (2008) Fish consumption, methylmercury and child neurodevelopment. Curr Opin Pediatr 20(2):178

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Olympio KPK, da Silva JP, da Silva AS, Souza VC, Buzalaf MA, Barbosa F, Cardoso MR (2018) Blood lead and cadmium levels in preschool children and associated risk factors in São Paulo, Brazil. Environ Pollut 240:831–838. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.04.124

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pfadenhauer LM, Burns J, Rohwer A, Rehfuess EA (2014) A protocol for a systematic review of the effectiveness of interventions to reduce exposure to lead through consumer products and drinking water. Syst Rev 3(1):36

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Prozialeck WC, Edwards JR (2012) Mechanisms of cadmium-induced proximal tubule injury: new insights with implications for biomonitoring and therapeutic interventions. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 343(1):2–12

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ramzan M, Malik MA, Iqbal Z, Arshad N, Khan SY, Arshad M (2011) Study of hematological indices in tannery workers exposed to chromium in Sheikhupura (Pakistan). Toxicol Ind Health 27(9):857–864

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rani A, Kumar A, Lal A, Pant M (2014) Cellular mechanisms of cadmium-induced toxicity: a review. Int J Environ Health Res 24(4):378–399

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rasoul GMA, Salem ME, Allam HK, Kasemy ZA, Younis FE (2017) Health-related disorders on occupational exposure to chromium in a leather tanning factory (Menoufia, Egypt). Menoufia Med J 30(1):92

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ray RR (2016) Adverse hematological effects of hexavalent chromium: an overview. Interdiscip Toxicol 9(2):55–65

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reuben A, Caspi A, Belsky DW, Broadbent J, Harrington H, Sugden K, Houts RM, Ramrakha S, Poulton R, Moffitt TE (2017) Association of childhood blood lead levels with cognitive function and socioeconomic status at age 38 years and with IQ change and socioeconomic mobility between childhood and adulthood. JAMA 317(12):1244–1251

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Reyes JW (2015) Lead exposure and behavior: effects on antisocial and risky behavior among children and adolescents. Econ Inq 53:1580–1605. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12202

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rice KM, Walker EM, Wu M, Gillette C, Blough ER (2014) Environmental mercury and its toxic effects. J Prev Med Public Health 47(2):74

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rodrigues EG, Bellinger DC, Valeri L, Hasan MO, Quamruzzaman Q, Golam M, Kile ML, Christiani DC, Wright RO, Mazumdar M (2016) Neurodevelopmental outcomes among 2-to 3-year-old children in Bangladesh with elevated blood lead and exposure to arsenic and manganese in drinking water. Environ Health 15(1):44

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Roy A, Bellinger D, Howard H, Schwartz J, Ettinger AS, Wright RO, Bouchard M, Palaniappan K, Balakrishnan K (2009) Lead exposure and behavior among young children in Chennai, India. Environ Health Perspect 117(10):1607

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Safhi MM, Khuwaja G, Alam MF, Hussain S, Siddiqui MH, Islam F (2016) Cadmium-induced nephrotoxicity via oxidative stress in male wistar rats and capsaicin protects its toxicity. Bull Environ Pharmacol Life Sci 5:5–11

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sagiv SK, Thurston SW, Bellinger DC, Amarasiriwardena C, Korrick SA (2012) Prenatal exposure to mercury and fish consumption during pregnancy and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder–related behavior in children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 166(12):1123–1131

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Saha R, Nandi R, Saha B (2011) Sources and toxicity of hexavalent chromium. J Coord Chem 64(10):1782–1806

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sampson JR, Winter SA (2018) Poisoned development: assessing childhood lead exposure as a cause of crime in a birth cohort followed through adolescence. Criminology 56:269–301. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12171

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sawut R, Kasim N, Maihemuti B, Hu L, Abliz A, Abdujappar A, Kurban M (2018) Pollution characteristics and health risk assessment of heavy metals in the vegetable bases of northwest China. Sci Total Environ 642:864–878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.06.034

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schoeters G, Hond ED, Zuurbier M, Naginiene R, Hazel P, Stilianakis N, Ronchetti R, Koppe JG (2006) Cadmium and children: exposure and health effects. Acta Paediatr 95:50–54

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schumacher L, Abbott LC (2017) Effects of methylmercury exposure on pancreatic beta cell development and function. J Appl Toxicol 37(1):4–12

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sharma BK, Singhal PC, Chugh KS (1978) Intravascular haemolysis and acute renal failure following potassium dichromate poisoning. Postgrad Med J 54(632):414–415

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shelnutt S, Goad P, Belsito D (2007) Dermatological toxicity of hexavalent chromium. Crit Rev Toxicol 37(5):375–387

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sherief LM, Abdelkhalek ER, Gharieb AF, Sherbiny HS, Usef DM, Almalky AA, Kamal NM, Salama MA, Gohar W (2015) Cadmium status among pediatric cancer patients in egypt. Medicine 94(20):e740

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Skerfving S, Löfmark L, Lundh T, Mikoczy Z, Strömberg U (2015) Late effects of low blood lead concentrations in children on school performance and cognitive functions. Neurotoxicology 49:114–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2015.05.009

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Streets DG, Horowitz HM, Jacob DJ, Lu Z, Levin L, Ter Schure AF, Sunderland EM (2017) Total mercury released to the environment by human activities. Environ Sci Technol 51(117):5969–5977

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sughis M, Penders J, Haufroid V, Nemery B, Nawrot TS (2011) Bone resorption and environmental exposure to cadmium in children: a cross-sectional study. Environ Health 10(1):104

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Takaki A, Jimi S, Segawa M, Hisano S, Takebayashi S, Iwasaki H (2004) Long-term cadmium exposure accelerates age-related mitochondrial changes in renal epithelial cells. Toxicology 203(1–3):145–154

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tang Y, Wang X, Jia J (2015) Mercury poisoning presenting as sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: a case report. Ann Intern Med 162(6):462–463

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tchounwou PB, Yedjou CG, Patlolla AK, Sutton DJ (2012) Heavy metals toxicity and the environment. EXS 101:133–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7643-8340-4_6

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tellez-Plaza M, Guallar E, Howard BV, Umans JG, Francesconi KA, Goessler W, Silbergeld EK, Devereux RB, Navas-Acien A (2013) Cadmium exposure and incident cardiovascular disease.”. Epidemiology 24(3):421

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tepanosyan G, Sahakyan L, Belyaeva O, Asmaryan S, Saghatelyan A (2018) Continuous impact of mining activities on soil heavy metals levels and human health. Sci Total Environ 639:900–909. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.05.211

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wallin A, Di Giuseppe D, Orsini N, Åkesson A, Forouhi NG, Wolk A (2017) Fish consumption and frying of fish in relation to type 2 diabetes incidence: a prospective cohort study of Swedish men. Eur J Nutr 56(2):843–852

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2017) Mercury and health. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mercury-a

  • WHO (2018) Lead poisoning and health. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/lead-poisoningand-health

  • Wilbur S, Abadin H, Fay M, Yu D, Tencza B, Ingerman L, Klotzbach J, James S, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (2012) Toxicological profile for carbon monoxide. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (US), Atlanta

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright JP, Dietrich KN, Douglas Ris M, Hornung RW, Wessel SD, Lanphear BP, Ho M, Rae MN (2008) Association of prenatal and childhood blood lead concentrations with criminal arrests in early adulthood. PLoS Med 5(5):e101

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wu W, Wu P, Yang F, Sun D, Zhang D-X, Zhou Y-K (2018) Assessment of heavy metal pollution and human health risks in urban soils around an electronics manufacturing facility. Sci Total Environ 630:53–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.183

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xie J, Shaikh ZA (2006) Cadmium-induced apoptosis in rat kidney epithelial cells involves decrease in nuclear factor-kappa B activity. Toxicol Sci 91(1):299–308

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (n.d.). Chromium (Cr) toxicity: what are the physiologic effects of chromium exposure? Environmental Medicine & Environmental Health Education—CSEM. Retrieved from https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/csem.asp?csem=10&po=10

  • Ye BS, Leung AOW, Wong MH (2017) The association of environmental toxicants and autism spectrum disorders in children. Environ Pollut 227:234–242

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yoshihisa Y, Shimizu T (2012) Metal allergy and systemic contact dermatitis: an overview. Dermatol Res Pract. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/749561

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zhitkovich A (2011) Chromium in drinking water: sources, metabolism, and cancer risks. Chem Res Toxicol 24(10):1617–1629

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou Z, Zhang X, Cui F, Liu R, Dong Z, Wang X, Shengyuan Yu (2014) Subacute motor neuron hyperexc itability with mercury poisoning: a case series and literature review. Eur Neurol 72(3–4):218–222

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation (81502787, 81773393), Central South University Innovation Driven Project (20170027010004), Key Research and Development Projects in Hunan Province (2018WK2013), and National key research and development program of China (2016YFC0900800).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Xiangya School of Public Health, Central South University, 110 Xiangya Road, Changsha, 410078, China

    Muwaffak Al osman, Fei Yang & Isaac Yaw Massey

  2. Key Laboratory of Biometallurgy, Ministry of Education, School of Mineral Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, China

    Fei Yang

  3. Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210009, China

    Fei Yang

Authors
  1. Muwaffak Al osman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Fei Yang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Isaac Yaw Massey
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Fei Yang.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Al osman, M., Yang, F. & Massey, I.Y. Exposure routes and health effects of heavy metals on children. Biometals 32, 563–573 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10534-019-00193-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10534-019-00193-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation