Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A critical review of methods for pile design in seismically liquefiable soils

  • Original Research Paper
  • Published:
Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Collapse and/or severe damage to pile-supported structures are still observed in liquefiable soils after most major earthquakes. Poor performance of pile foundations remains a great concern to the earthquake engineering community. This review paper compares and contrasts the two plausible theories on pile failure in liquefiable soils. The well established theory of pile failure is based on a flexural mechanism; where the lateral loads on the pile (due to inertia and/or lateral spreading) induce bending failure. This theory is well researched in the recent past and assumes that piles are laterally loaded beams. A more recent theory based on buckling instability treats the piles as laterally unsupported slender columns in liquefiable soils and investigates the buckling instability (bifurcation). The objective of this paper is to investigate the implications to practical pile foundation design that flow from both these theories. Provisions for design made by major international codes of practice for pile design including the Japanese Highway Code (JRA) will be considered. The necessity for such codes to consider alternative forms of failure mechanisms such as the buckling instability of piles in liquefied ground will be discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abdoun TH (1997) Modelling of seismically induced lateral spreading of multi-layered soil and its effect on pile foundations. PhD thesis, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, NY

  • Abdoun TH, Dobry R (2002) Evaluation of pile foundation response to lateral spreading. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 22: 1051–1058

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abdoun T, Dobry R, O’Rourke TD, Goh SH (2003) Pile response to lateral spreads: centrifuge modeling. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 129(10): 869–878

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • AIJ (1988) Architectural Institute of Japan, Recommendations for design of building foundations (in Japanese)

  • AIJ (2001) Architectural Institute of Japan, Recommendations for design of building foundations (in Japanese)

  • API (2003) American Petroleum Institute, Recommended practice for planning designing and constructing fixed offshore platforms

  • Berrill JB, Christensen SA, Keenan RP, Okada W, Pettinga JR (2001) Case studies of lateral spreading forces on a piled foundation. Geotechnique 51(6): 501–517

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhattacharya S (2003) Pile instability during earthquake liquefaction. PhD thesis, University of Cambridge, UK

  • Bhattacharya S, Madabhushi SPG, Bolton MD (2004) An alternative mechanism of pile failure in liquefiable deposits during earthquakes. Geotechnique 54(3): 203–213

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhattacharya S, Bolton MD, Madabhushi SPG (2005) A reconsideration of the safety of the piled bridge foundations in liquefiable soils. Soils Found 45(4): 13–26

    Google Scholar 

  • BTL Committee (2000) Study on liquefaction and lateral spreading in the 1995 Hyogoken-Nambu earthquake, Building Research Report No 138. Building Research Institute, Ministry of Construction, Japan (in Japanese)

  • Dobry R, Abdoun T (1998) of Conference. Post-triggering response of liquefied sand in the free field and near foundations. In: Dakoulas P, Yegian M, Holtz RD (eds) Proceedings of geotechnical earthquake engineering and soil dynamics III. Geotechnical special publication no. 75, ASCE. Seattle, Washington, August 3–6, 2, pp 270–300

  • Dobry R, Abdoun T (2001) Recent studies on seismic centrifuge modelling of liquefaction and its effect on deep foundation. In: Proceedings of the 4th international conference on recent advances in geotechnical earthquake engineering and soil dynamics and symposium in honour of Professor W. D. Liam Finn. San Diego, California, March 26–31, 2001

  • Dobry R, Abdoun T, O’Rourke TD, Goh SH (2003) Single piles in lateral spreads: field bending moment evaluation. J Geotech Geoenviron Engg ASCE 129(10): 879–889

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Editorial Committee for the Report on the Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake Disaster (1998) Report on the Hanshin-Awaji earthquake disaster, Building Series, vol 4, Maruzen (in Japanese)

  • Eurocode 7 (1997) Geotechnical design, European Committee for Standardization, Brussels

  • Finn WDL, Fujita N (2002) Piles in liquefiable soils: seismic analysis and design issues. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 22: 731–742

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finn WDL, Thavaraj T (2001) Deep foundations in liquefiable soils: case histories, centrifuge tests and methods of analysis. In: Proceedings of the 4th international conference on recent advances in geotechnical earthquake engineering and soil dynamics and symposium in honour of Professor W. D. Liam Finn. San Diego, California, March 26–31, 2001

  • Fujii S, Isemoto N, Satou Y, Kaneko O (1998) Investigation and analysis of a pile foundation damaged by liquefaction during the 1995 Hyogoken-Nambu earthquake. Soils Found., Special issue on geotechnical aspects of the 17 January 1995 Hyogoken-Nambu Earthquake, No. 2, pp 179–192

  • Fukuoka M (1966) Damage to civil engineering structures. Soils Found 6(2): 45–52

    Google Scholar 

  • Goh S, O’Rourke TD (1999) Limit state model for soil–pile interaction during lateral spread. In: Proceedings of 7th US–Japan workshop on earthquake resistant design of lifeline facilities and countermeasures against soil liquefaction. Seattle, WA

  • Haigh SK (2002) Effects of Earthquake-induced liquefaction on pile foundations in sloping ground. PhD thesis, University of Cambridge, UK

  • Haigh SK, Madabhushi SPG (2005) The effects of pile flexibility on pile loading in laterally spreading slopes, invited paper, ASCE-GI Special publication on simulation and seismic performance of pile foundations in liquefied and laterally spreading ground. In: Boulanger RW, Tokimatsu K (eds) ASCE Geotechnical special publication no. 145, ISBN 0-7844-0822-X, pp 24–37

  • Halabe UB, Jain SK (1993) Amplification factors for piles. J Eng Struct, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd. 15(2): 97–101

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamada M (1992a) Large ground deformations and their effects on lifelines: 1964 Niigata earthquake. Case studies of liquefaction and lifelines performance during past earthquake. Technical Report NCEER-92–0001, vol 1. Japanese case studies, National Centre for Earthquake Engineering Research, Buffalo, NY

  • Hamada M (1992b) Large ground deformations and their effects on lifelines: 1983 Nihonkai-Chubu earthquake. Case studies of liquefaction and lifelines performance during past earthquake. Technical report NCEER-92–0001, vol 1. Japanese case studies, National Centre for Earthquake Engineering Research, Buffalo, NY

  • Hamada M (2000) Performances of foundations against liquefaction-induced permanent ground displacements. In: Proceedings of the 12th world conference on earthquake engineering. Auckland, New Zealand, paper no 1754

  • Hamada M, O’Rourke TD (eds) (1992) Case studies of liquefaction and lifeline performance during past earthquakes, vol 1. Japanese case studies, Technical report NCEER-92–0001

  • He L, Elgamal A, Abdoun T, Abe A, Dobry R, Meneses J, Sato M, Tokimatsu K (2006) Lateral load on piles due to liquefaction-induced lateral spreading during one-G shake table experiments. In: Proceedings of the 100th anniversary earthquake conference commemorating the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, April 18–22, California

  • Horne MR, Merchant W (1965) The stability of frames. Pergamon

  • Ishihara K (1993) Rankine lecture: liquefaction and flow failure during earthquakes. Geotechnique 43(3): 351–415

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ishihara K (1996) Soil behaviour in earthquake geotechnics. Oxford Science Publication, Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK

    Google Scholar 

  • Ishihara K (1997) Terzaghi oration: geotechnical aspects of the 1995 Kobe earthquake. In: Proceedings of ICSMFE. Hamburg, pp 2047–2073

  • Ishihara, K, Cubrinovski M (1998) Problems associated with liquefaction and lateral spreading during earthquakes. In: Proceedings of a speciality conference, geotechnical earthquake engineering and soil dynamics III, ASCE geotechnical special publication, no 75, pp 301–312

  • Iwasaki T (1984) A case history of bridge performance during earthquakes in Japan. In: Prakash S (ed) Keynote lecture at the international conference on case histories in geotechnical engineering, May 6–11, University of Missouri—Rolla

  • JRA (2002) Japanese Road Association, Specification for highway bridges, part V, seismic design

  • JRA (1996) Japanese Road Association, specification for highway bridges, part V, seismic design

  • Kawamura S, Nishizawa T, Wada H (1985) Damage to piles due to liquefaction found by excavation twenty years after earthquake. Nikkei Architecture, 27 May, pp 130–134

  • Knappett JA, Madabhushi SPG (2005) Modelling of liquefaction-induced instability in pile groups. In: Boulanger RW, Tokimatsu K (eds) ASCE geotechnical special publication no 145 on seismic performance and simulation of pile foundations in liquefied and laterally spreading ground, pp 255–267

  • Liu L, Dobry R (1995) Effect of liquefaction on lateral response of piles by centrifuge model tests. NCEER report to FHWA. NCEER Bull 9(1):7–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Madabhushi SPG, Patel D, Haigh SK, (2005) Geotechnical aspects of the Bhuj Earthquake, Chapter 3, EEFIT Report, Institution of Structural Engineers, London, UK, ISBN 0901297-372

  • Matlock H (1970) Correlations for design of laterally loaded piles in soft clay. In: Proceedings of 2nd offshore technology conference, Houston, paper no OTC 1204

  • National Research Council (1985) Liquefaction of soils during earthquakes. Report No. CETS-EE-001, committee on earthquake engineering. National Academy Press, Washington, DC

  • Olson SM (2006) Liquefaction analysis of Duncan Dam using strength ratios. Can Geotech J 43: 484–499

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olson SM, Stark TD (2002) Liquefied strength ratio from liquefaction flow failure case histories. Can Geotech J 39: 629–747

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pillai VS, Salgado FM (1994) Post-liquefaction stability and deformation analysis of Duncan Dam. Can Geotech J 31: 967–978

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramos R, Abdoun TH, Dobry R (2000) Effects of lateral stiffness of superstructure on bending moments of pile foundation due to liquefaction induced lateral spreading. In: Proceedings of the 12th world conference on earthquake engineering, Auckland, New Zealand

  • Rankine WJM (1866) Useful rules and tables. London

  • Reese LC, Cox WR, Koop FD (1974) Analysis of laterally loaded piles in sand. Offshore Technology Conference, OTC paper no 2080

  • Reese LC, Cox WR, Koop FD (1975) Field testing and analysis of laterally loaded piles in stiff clay. Offshore Technology Conference, OTC paper no 2312

  • Rollins KM, Gerber TM, Lane JD, Ashford SA (2005) Lateral resistance of a full-scale pile group in liquefied sand. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng ASCE 131(1): 115–125

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rourke TDO, Meyersohn WD, Shiba Y, Chaudhuri D (1994) Evaluation of pile response to liquefaction-induced lateral spread. In: Proceedings from the 5th US-Japan workshop on earthquake resistant design of lifeline facilities and countermeasures against soil liquefaction: technical report NCEER 94-0026, National Centre for Earthquake Engineering Research, Buffalo, NY

  • Sato M, Ogasawara M, Tazoh T (2001) Reproduction of lateral ground displacements and lateral-flow earth pressures acting on a pile foundations using centrifuge modelling. In: Proceedings of the 4th international conference on recent advances in geotechnical earthquake engineering and soil dynamics and symposium in honour of Professor W. D. Liam Finn. San Diego, California, March 26–31, 2001

  • Seed HB (1987) Design problems in soil liquefaction. J Geotech Eng ASCE 113(8): 827–845

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seed RB, Harder LF Jr (1990) SPT-based analysis of cyclic pore pressure generation and undrained residual strength. In: Proceedings of the H. B. Seed memorial symposium, vol 2. Bi-Tech Publishing Ltd, pp 351–391

  • Sesov V, Towahata I, Motamed R (2006) Lateral pressure distribution in a large group pile caused by flow of liquefied sandy soil. In: Proceedings of the 1st European conference on earthquake engineering and seismology, Geneva, Switzerland, 3–8th September 2006

  • Soga K (1997) Chapter 8, Geotechnical aspects of Kobe earthquake. Of EEFIT report, Institution of Structural Engineers, UK

  • Takata T, Tada Y, Toshida I, Kuribayashi E (1965) Damage to bridges in Niigata earthquake. Report no 125-5, Public Works Research Institute (in Japanese)

  • Tazoh T (2007) Earthquake engineering research on pile foundations with emphasis on piles subjected to large ground deformations. In: Bhattacharya s (ed) NICEE Special Publications Foundation design in seismic areas: principles and few applications

  • Timoshenko SP, Gere JM (1961) Theory of elastic stability. McGraw-Hill book company, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Tokimatsu K (1999) Performance of pile foundations in laterally spreading soils. In: Proceedings of the 2nd international conference on earthquake geotechnical engineering, vol 3. Lisbon, Portugal, June 21–25, pp 957–964

  • Tokimatsu K, Asaka Y (1998) Effects of liquefaction-induced ground displacements on pile performance in the 1995 Hyogeken-Nambu earthquake. Special issue of soils and foundations, pp 163–177, Sep 1998

  • Tokimatsu K, Suzuki H (2005) Effect of inertial and kinematic interactions on seismic behaviour of pile foundations based on large shaking table tests. In: Proceedings of the 2nd CUEE conference on urban earthquake engineering. Tokyo Institute of Technology (Japan)

  • Tokimatsu K, Mizuno H, Kakurai M (1996) Building damage associated with geotechnical problems. Special issue of soils and foundations. Japanese Geotechnical Society, Jan 1996, pp 219–234

  • Tokimatsu K, Suzuki H, Suzuki Y (2001) Back-calculated p–y relation of liquefied soils from large shaking table tests. In: Proceedings of the 4th international conference on recent advances in geotechnical earthquake engineering and soil dynamics and symposium in honour of Professor W. D. Liam Finn. San Diego, California, March 26–31, 2001

  • Tokimatsu K, Suzuki H, Sato M (2005) Effects of dynamic soil-pile structure interaction on pile stresses. J Struct Const Eng, Arch Inst Jpn 587: 125–132

    Google Scholar 

  • Tokimatsu K, Oh-oka H, Satake K, Shamoto Y, Asaka Y (1997) Failure and deformation modes of piles due to liquefaction-induced lateral spreading in the 1995 Hyogoken-Nambu earthquake. J Struct Eng AIJ, Jpn 495:95–100

    Google Scholar 

  • Tokimatsu K, Oh-oka H, Satake K, Shamoto Y, Asaka Y (1998) Effects of lateral ground movements on failure patterns of piles in the 1995 Hyogoken-Nambu earthquake. In: Proceedings of a speciality conference, geotechnical earthquake engineering and soil dynamics III, ASCE Geotechnical special publication no 75, pp 1175–1186

  • Wilson DW, Boulanger RW, Kutter BL (2000) Observed seismic lateral resistance of liquefying sand. J Geotech Eng ASCE 126(10): 898–906

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yasuda S, Yoshida N, Kiku H, Adachi K, Gose S (1999) A simplified method to evaluate liquefaction-induced deformation. In: Seco e Pinto PS (ed) Earthquake geotechnical engineering. © Balkema, Rotterdam, ISBN 90-5809-1163

  • Yokoyama K, Tamura K, Matsuo O (1997) Design methods of bridge foundations against soil liquefaction and liquefaction-induced ground flow. In: 2nd Italy–Japan workshop on seismic design and retrofit of bridges. Rome, Italy, Feb 27 and 28, 1997

  • Yoshida N, Hamada M (1990) Damage to foundation piles and deformation pattern of ground due to liquefaction-induced permanent ground deformation. In: Proceedings of 3rd Japan–US workshop on earthquake resistant design of lifeline facilities and countermeasures for soil liquefaction, pp 147–161

  • Yoshida N, Towahata I, Yasuda S, Kanatani M (2005) Discussion to the paper by Bhattacharya et al. (2004) on an alternative mechanism of pile failure in liquefiable deposits during earthquakes. Geotechnique 55(3):259–263

    Google Scholar 

  • Yoshida N, Tazoh T, Wakamatsu K, Yasuda S, Towhata I, Nakazawa H, Kiku H (2007) Causes of Showa Bridge collapse in the 1964 Niigata earthquake based on eye-witness testimony. Soils Found 47(6): 1075–1087

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Dynamics, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK

    S. Bhattacharya

  2. Department of Civil Engineering, University of Bristol, University Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TR, UK

    S. Bhattacharya

  3. Geotechnical Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

    S. P. G. Madabhushi

Authors
  1. S. Bhattacharya
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. S. P. G. Madabhushi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to S. Bhattacharya.

Additional information

S. Bhattacharya–Previously Departmental Lecturer in Engineering Science, University of Oxford, UK and Fellow of Somerville College, Oxford. S. P. G. Madabhushi–Fellow of Girton College, Cambridge.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bhattacharya, S., Madabhushi, S.P.G. A critical review of methods for pile design in seismically liquefiable soils. Bull Earthquake Eng 6, 407–446 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-008-9068-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-008-9068-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation