Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Jeong exchange and collective leadership in Korean organizations

  • Published:
Asia Pacific Journal of Management Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

How does the Korean management system work with open interaction and without excessive power abuse, in spite of the emphasis on authority and hierarchy in Korean society? This paper explicates the concept of jeong exchange, an emotional support mechanism based on informal social ties, as the basis of social capital in Korean collectives (woori). Jeong exchange is first described and then contrasted with related concepts in the other major Confucian societies of China and Japan. It is then used to develop the notion of “collective leadership” to describe the nature and process of Korean leadership.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. The Korean word “cheong” was used in some papers before 2000 e.g. Choi, & Choi (1990a); however, the spelling used in this paper is “jeong” in line with the new Korean romanization system promulgated in 2000.

  2. KBIS' (2004) mission is to “extend the maximum support to those in order to help exploit the business opportunities based on the right understanding of the facts about Korea's people, industries and the markets of their interest.”

  3. http://www.kbis.co.kr/english/tip04_how.htm, accessed August 2005.

  4. Survey conducted by online recruiting company Saramin (www.saramin.co.kr) of 2,000 office workers, reported in Chosun daily newspaper, 2005.

  5. Survey of 150 employees at Hanaro Telecom, reported in Hankyung Economic Newspaper, 2005.

  6. Survey done by the recruiting agent Joblink of 1,230 office workers, reported in Mail Economic Newspaper, 2005.

  7. e.g., Seoul Newspaper, 2005 describing the characteristic of a new councilor in the labor ministry.

  8. e.g., the CEO of LG CNS, reported in Hankyung Economic Newspaper, 2005.

  9. “Choseon” became “Joseon” following the new Korean romanization system in 2000.

  10. Survey of 150 employees at Hanaro Telecom, reported in Hankyung Economic Newspaper, 2005.

  11. 40.4% of survey participants cited severe effects, while 44.5% claimed more than moderate effects from uncooperative team atmosphere; from survey conducted by recruiting site PowerJob www.powerjob.co.kr of 953 office workers. The proportion citing no effect was only 15%. The main cause of undesirable team spirit was given as lack of communications between team members (29.3%). 78.5% of recommendations to boost teamwork emphasized the importance of personalized relationship (building mutual trust via communications (37.8%), shared goals (23%), developing personal closeness among team members (17.7%)), reported in Donga Newspaper, 2005.

References

  • Adler, P. S., & Kwon, S. W. 2002. Social capital: Prospects for a new concept. Academy of Management Review, 27(1): 17–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alston, J. P., & He, Y. 1997. Business guide to modern China. East Lansing, Michigan State: University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alston, J. P. 1989. Wa, Guanxi, and Inhwa: Managerial principles in Japan, China, and Korea. Business Horizons, 32(2): 26–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Belliveau, M. A., O'Reilly, C. A. III, & Wade, J. B. 1996. Social capital at the top: Effects of social similarity and status on CEO compensation. Academy of Management Journal, 39: 156–159.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bordieu, P. 1986. The forms of capital. In Richardson, J. G. (Eds.). Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education: 241–258. New York: Greenwood.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bower, B. 2004. Beg your indulgence: The Japanese social concept of amae goes global. Science News, 165(26): 411.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brandt, V. S. R. 1987. Korea. In Lodge, G. C., & Vogel, E. F. (Eds.). Ideology and national competitiveness: An analysis of nine countries. Boston: Harvard Business School.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burt, R. S. 1992. Structural holes: The social structure of competition. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burt, R. S. 1997. The contingent value of social capital. Administrative Science Quarterly, 42: 339–365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burt, R. S. 2000. The network structure of social capital. In Sutton, R. I., & Staw, B. M. (Eds.). Research in organizational behaviour, 22: 345–423. Greenwich, Connecticut: JAI Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cha, J. H. 1994. Aspects of individualism and collectivism in Korea. In Kim, U., & Triandis, H. C. (Eds.). Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications: 157–174. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang, C. S., & Chang, N. J. 1994. The Korean management system. Westport, Connecticut: Quorum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, M. 1995. Asian management systems. New York: International Thomson Business.

    Google Scholar 

  • Choi, S. C., & Choi, S. H. 1990a. We-ness: A Korean discourse of collectivism, unpublished manuscript, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Korea. http://cau.ac.kr/~choi/non.htm, Accessed June 11. 2005.

  • Choi, S. C., & Choi, S. H. 1990b. The conceptualization of Korean tact, noon-chi. Proceedings of 10th International Congress for International Association for Cross-cultural Psychology. California: Sage.

  • Choi, S. C., & Yu, S. Y. 1994. A psychological, comparative analysis of Koreans “Cheong” and Japanese ‘Ninjo’, unpublished manuscript, Chungang University, Seoul, Korea. http://cau.ac.kr/~choi/non.htm, Accessed 18 May 2005.

  • Choi, S. C. 1991. Cheong: The socio-emotional grammar of Koreans. Paper Presented at the Colloquium Series, Dept of Psychology, University of Hawaii, January.

  • Choi, S. C., & Choi, S. H. 1992. The socio- emotional grammar of Koreans, unpublished manuscript, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Korea. http://cau.ac.kr/~choi/non.htm, Accessed June 11 2005.

  • Choi, S. C., Kim, Y. C., Yu, S. Y., & Lee, J. J. 1997. Korean's jeong emblem (Korean) unpublished, Chungang University, Seoul, Korea. http://cafe.naver.com/gaury.cafe?iframe_url=/ArticleRead.nhn%3Farticleid=11138, Accessed 21 May, 2005.

  • Chu, C. N. 1991. The Asian mind game: Unlocking the hidden agenda of the Asian business culture: A westerner's survival manual. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chung, E. Y. J. 1995. The Korean neo-Confucianism of Yi T'oegye and Yi Yulgok. Albany, New York: State University of New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chung, K. H., Lee, H. C., & Jung, K. H. 1997. Korean management: Global strategy and cultural transformation. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clegg, S., & Kono, T. 2002. Trends in Japanese management: An overview of embedded continuities and disembedded discontinuities. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 19(2,3): 269.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, J. S. 1990. Foundations of social theory. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, J. S. 1998. Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94(Supplement): S95–S120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Doi, K. 1973. The anatomy of dependence. Tokyo: Kodansha International.

    Google Scholar 

  • Doi, T. 1986. The anatomy of conformity: The individual versus society. Tokyo: Kodansha.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellemers, N., Gilder, D., & Haslam, S. A. 2004. Motivation individuals and groups at work: A social identity perspective on leadership and group performance. Academy of Management Review, 29(3): 459–478.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fukuyama, F. 1995. Trust: The social virtues and the creation of prosperity. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldman, A. 1994. Doing business with Japanese: A guide to successful communication, management, and diplomacy. Albany: State Univeristy of New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goleman, D. 1995. Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. New York: Bantam Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graen, G. B., & Scandura, T. A. 1987. Toward a psychology of dyadic organizing. Research in Organizational Behavior, 9: 175–208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graen, G. B., & Uhl-Bien, M. 1995. Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of leader member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years—Applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective. Leadership Quarterly, 6: 219–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gray, K. R., & Marshall, K. P. 1998. Kenyan and Korean management orientations on Hofstede's cultural values. Multinational Business Review, 6(2): 79–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede, G. 1980. Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values. Newbury Park, California: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • House, R., Javidan, M., Hanges, P., & Dorfman, P. 2002. Understanding cultures and implicit leadership theories across the globe: An introduction to project GLOBE. Journal of world business, 37: 3–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jonathan, J. 1985. In Search of Theory K. International Management, 40(9): 107–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ketcham, R. 1987. Individualism and public life. Oxford: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, U. 1992. Introduction to individualism and collectivism: Theoretical and methodological issues. In Kim, U., Triandis, H. C., & Yoon, G. (Eds.). Individualism and collectivism: Theoretical and methodological issues. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, Y. R. 1993. Jeong and Han (Korean). Seoul: Daejeon University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, J. W. 1999. Ideology and urbanization in South Korea. Dissertation, Department of Sociology and Urban Studies Program, Michigan State University.

  • Kim, M., Hunter, J. E., Miyahara, A., Horvath, A., Bresnahan, M., & Yoon, H. 1996. Individual vs culture-level dimensions of individualism and collectivism: Effects on preferred conversational styles. Communication Monographs, 29–49.

  • Kim, N. H. Sohn, D. W., & Wall, J. A. Jr. 1999. Korean leaders' (and subordinates') conflict management. International Journal of Conflict Management, 10(2): 130.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, A. Y. C., & Bond, M. H. 1985. The Confucian paradigm of man: A sociological view. In Tseng, W. S., & Wu, D. Y. H. (Eds.). Chinese culture and mental health: 29–45. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koo, J. H., & Nahm, A. C. 1997. An introduction to Korean culture. New Jersey: Hollym.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kostova, T., & Roth, K. 2003. Social capital in multinational corporations and a micro–macro model of its formation. Academy of Management Review, 28: 297–317.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lapinski, M. K., & Levine, T. R. 2000. Culture and information manipulation theory: The effects of self-construal and locus of benefit on information manipulation. Communication Studies, Spring.

  • Leana, C., & Van Buren, H. III. 1999. Organizational social capital and employment practices. Academy of Management Review, 24: 538–555.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, J. K. 1988. A comparative study of leadership and ethical values in organizational culture revealed in the thoughts of Confucius and Aristotle: From the perspective of educational administration. The Journal of Educational Administration [Korean], 16(2): 76–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S. W. 1990. Koreans' social relationship and Cheong space. Presented at the 1st international Conference on Individualism and Collectivism: Psychocultural Perspectives from East and West, July 9–13, Seoul Korea.

  • Lee, H. C. 1998. Transformation of employment practices in Korean businesses. International Studies of Management & Organization, 28(4): 26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, J. K. 2001. Confucian thought affecting leadership and organizational culture of Korean higher education, radical pedagogy. http://radicalpedagogy.icaap.org/content/issue3_3/5-lee.html, Accessed March 14, 2005.

  • Lee, D. G., Gang, I. J., & Lee, Y. H. 1998. Characteristics of Korean bureaucrat culture and the Government. Korean Society and Administration Research (Korean), 9(1).

  • Lim, T. K. 1993. Communicational base of Korean relationship: Chaemyun, jeong, and nunchi (Korean), Korea media research autumn conference.

  • Lin, N. 1999. Building a network theory of social capital. Connections, 22(1): 28–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Littrell, R. F. 2002. Desirable leadership behaviours of multi-cultural managers in China. Journal of Management Development, 21(1): 5–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mensik, S., Grainger, R. J., & Chatterje, S. R. 1999. Trends and transitions in Japanese and Korean management approaches. Australia: Curtin University of Technology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morishima, M. 1982. Why has Japan succeeded?. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nahapiet, J., & Ghoshal, S. 1998. Social capital, intellectual capital, and the organizational advantage. Academy of Management Review, 23: 22–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nam, S. H., & Mowday, R. T. 1993. Culture and managerial attributions of personal responsibility for group success and failure, paper presented at the 1993 Western Academy of Management Meetings, San Jose, California.

  • Oh, M. S. 2003. Study on appropriate leadership pattern for the Korean church in postmodern era. Journal of Asian Mission: 131–145.

  • Oh, T. K., & Kim, E. S. 2002. The impact of Confucianism on East Asian Business Enterprises. In Rhee, Z., & Chang, E. (Eds.). Korean business and management: The reality and the vision. New Jersey: Hollym International Corp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oh, H. K., Chung, M. H., & Labianca, G. 2004. Group social capital and group effectiveness: The role of informal socializing ties. Academy of Management Journal, 47(6): 860–875.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paik, Y. S., & Sohn, J. H. 1998. Confucius in Mexico: Korean MNCs and the Maquiladoras. Business Horizons, 41(6): 25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, S. H. 1990. A social-psychological study on the Koreans' we-hood-ness [Korean]. Master's thesis, Department of Psychology, Chung-Ang University, Seoul: Korea.

  • Portes, A. 1998. Social capital: Its origins and applications in modern sociology. In Hagan, J., & Cook K. (Eds.). Annual review of sociology, 24: 1–24. Greenwich, Connecticut: JAI Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Redding, S. G. 1990. The spirit of Chinese capitalism. Berlin: De Gruyter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Redding, S. G., & Wong, G. Y. Y. 1986. The psychology of Chinese organisational behaviour. In Bond, M. (Eds.). Psychology of the Chinese people. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reischauer, E. O., & Fairbank, J. K. 1985. East Asia, the great tradition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Song, Y. H., & Meek, C. B. 1998. The impact of culture on the management values and beliefs of Korean firms. Journal of Comparative International Management, 1(1): 38–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tam, S. 1990. Centrifugal versus centripetal growth processes: Contrasting ideal types for conceptualising the development patterns of Chinese and Japanese firms. In Clegg, S. R., & Redding, S. G. (Eds.). Capitalism in contrasting culture: 153–184. New York: de Gruyter.

    Google Scholar 

  • The Korea Business Information Services. 2004. How to do business with Koreans. http://www.kbis.co.kr/english/tip04_how.htm, Accessed Nov. 02. 2005.

  • Triandis, H. C. 1989. The self and social behaviour in differing cultural contexts. Psychological Review, 96: 506–520.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Useem, M., & Karabel, J. 1986. Pathways to top corporate management. American Sociological Review: 44.

  • Vogel, E. F. 1987. Japan: Adaptive Commutarianism. In Lodge, G. C., & Vogel, E. F. (Eds.). Ideology and national competitiveness: An analysis of nine countries. Boston: Harvard Business School.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vogel, S. 1996. Urban middle-class Japanese family life, 1958–1996: A personal and evolving perspective. In Shwalb, D. W., & Shwalb, B. J. (Eds.). Japanese childrearing: Two generations of scholarship: 177–201. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitely, R. 1992. Business systems in East Asia: Firms, markets and society. London: SAGE.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wong, M. M. L. 1996. Organizational learning through graduate training programmes: A comparison between Japan and Hong Kong in a Japanese organization. Journal of European Industrial Training, 20(5): 13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yim, H. S. 2002. Cultural identity and cultural policy in South. The International Journal of Cultural Policy, 8(1): 37–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yum, J. O. 1987. Korean philosophy and communication. In Kincaid, D. L. (Eds.). Communication theory: Eastern and Western perspective: 71–86. New York: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Business Research Program, Smurfit Graduate School of Business, University College Dublin, Carysfort Avenue, Blackrock, Co Dublin, Ireland

    Inju Yang

Authors
  1. Inju Yang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Inju Yang.

Additional information

Inju Yang is a PhD candidate in organization behavior at Smurfit School of Business, University College Dublin, Ireland. She holds an MBA from Smurfit School of Business, University College Dublin, and a bachelor's degree in Korean language and literature from Sogang University, Korea. She has experience working with international companies in Hong Kong and Korea, and has studied in mainland China.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Yang, I. Jeong exchange and collective leadership in Korean organizations. Asia Pacific J Manage 23, 283–298 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-006-9003-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-006-9003-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation