Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Simulation Modeling of Policies Directed at Youth Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Consumption

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
American Journal of Community Psychology

Abstract

Childhood obesity is a significant public health problem requiring innovative solutions. While recent reviews indicate that some policies show promise, there is a lack of information regarding which policies, and policy combinations, work best. Low-nutrition, energy-dense foods and beverages such as sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) have been identified as a major contributor to the problem. The purpose of this paper is to use simulation modeling to show how changes in three categories of SSB policies—school nutrition, school-based education, and taxes—impact SSB and other food consumption. The model shows that policies directed at SSBs, particularly tax hikes, could lead to substantial reductions in the number of calories consumed by youth. The estimates, however, are subject to a high degree of uncertainty. Estimates from school-based nutrition and school-based education policies, while also helping to reduce caloric intake, generally show smaller effects than tax policies and considerable variation around parameter estimates for individual and combined policies. We conclude with a discussion of the limits of the model, and suggest where additional information is needed. Limitations notwithstanding, simulation modeling is a promising methodology that can help advance our understanding of policy effects, thereby helping policymakers to better formulate effective policies to reduce obesity prevalence and the associated social harms.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Andreyeva, T., Chaloupka, F. J., & Brownell, K. D. (2011). Estimating the potential of taxes on sugar-sweetened beverages to reduce consumption and generate revenue. Preventive Medicine, 52(6), 413–416.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Andreyeva, T., Long, M. W., & Brownell, K. D. (2010). The impact of food prices on consumption: A systematic review of research on the price elasticity of demand for food. American Journal of Public Health, 100(20), 216–222.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Auld, M. C., & Powell, L. M. (2009). Economics of food energy density and adolescent body weight. Economica, 76(304), 719–740.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bellisle, F., & Rolland-Cachera, M. F. (2001). How sugar-containing drinks might increase adiposity in children. Lancet, 357(9255), 490–491.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Besley, T. J., & Rosen, H. S. (1999). Sales taxes and prices: An empirical analysis. National Tax Journal, 52(2), 157–178. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04034-4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blum, J. E., Davee, A. M., Beaudoin, C. M., Jenkins, P. L., Kaley, L. A., & Wigand, D. A. (2008). Reduced availability of sugar-sweetened beverages and diet soda has a limited impact on beverage consumption patterns in Maine high school youth. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 40(6), 341–347.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Briefel, R. R., Crepinsek, M. K., Cabili, C., Wilson, A., & Gleason, P. M. (2009a). School food environments and practices affect dietary behaviors of US public school children. Journal of American Diet Association, 109(2 Suppl), S91–S107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Briefel, R. R., Wilson, A., & Gleason, P. M. (2009b). Consumption of low-nutrient, energy-dense foods and beverages at school, home, and other locations among school lunch participants and nonparticipants. Journal of American Diet Association, 109(2 Suppl), S79–S90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, I. J., Stamler, J., Van Horn, L., Robertson, C. E., Chan, Q., Dyer, A. R., et al. (2011). Sugar-sweetened beverage, sugar intake of individuals, and their blood pressure: International study of macro/micronutrients and blood pressure. Hypertension, 57(4), 695–701.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T., & Summerbell, C. (2009). Systematic review of school-based interventions that focus on changing dietary intake and physical activity levels to prevent childhood obesity: An update to the obesity guidance produced by the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Obesity Reviews, 10(1), 110–141.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brownell, K. D., Farley, T., Willett, W. C., Popkin, B. M., Chaloupka, F. J., Thompson, J. W., et al. (2009). The public health and economic benefits of taxing sugar-sweetened beverages. The New England Journal of Medicine, 361(16), 1599–1605.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Butte, N. F., Christiansen, E., & Sorensen, T. I. (2007). Energy imbalance underlying the development of childhood obesity. Obesity (Silver Spring), 15(12), 3056–3066.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Butte, N. F., & Ellis, K. J. (2003). Comment on “obesity and the environment: Where do we go from here?”. Science, 301(5633), 598. Author reply 598.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chaloupka, F. J., & Powell, L. M. (2009). Price, availability, and youth obesity: Evidence from bridging the gap. Preventing Chronic Disease, 6(3), A93.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, L., Appel, L. J., Loria, C., Lin, P. H., Champagne, C. M., Elmer, P. J., et al. (2009). Reduction in consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages is associated with weight loss: The PREMIER trial. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(5), 1299–1306.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chriqui, J. F., Eidson, S. S., Bates, H., Kowalczyk, S., & Chaloupka, F. J. (2008). State sales tax rates for soft drinks and snacks sold through grocery stores and vending machines, 2007. Journal of Public Health Policy, 29(2), 226–249.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cradock, A. L., McHugh, A., Mont-Ferguson, H., Grant, L., Barrett, J. L., Wang, Y. C., et al. (2011). Effect of school district policy change on consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages among high school students, Boston, Massachusetts, 2004–2006. Preventing Chronic Disease, 8(4), A74.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cullen, K. W., Hartstein, J., Reynolds, K. D., Vu, M., Resnicow, K., Greene, N., et al. (2007). Improving the school food environment: Results from a pilot study in middle schools. Journal of American Diet Association, 107(3), 484–489.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cullen, K. W., Watson, K., & Zakeri, I. (2008). Improvements in middle school student dietary intake after implementation of the Texas Public School Nutrition Policy. American Journal of Public Health, 98(1), 111–117.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cullen, K. W., Watson, K., Zakeri, I., & Ralston, K. (2006). Exploring changes in middle-school student lunch consumption after local school food service policy modifications. Public Health Nutrition, 9(6), 814–820.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cullen, K. W., & Zakeri, I. (2004). Fruits, vegetables, milk, and sweetened beverages consumption and access to a la carte/snack bar meals at school. American Journal of Public Health, 94(3), 463–467.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dharmasena, S., & Capps, O. (2009). Demand interrelationships of at-home nonalcoholic beverage consumption in the United States. Presented at the Agricultural & Applied Economics Association’s 2009 AAEA & ACCI Joint Annual Meeting, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, July 26–29, 2009.

  • Dharmasena, S., & Capps, O., Jr. (2011). Intended and unintended consequences of a proposed national tax on sugar-sweetened beverages to combat the US obesity problem. Health Economics,. doi:10.1002/hec.1738.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DiMeglio, D. P., & Mattes, R. D. (2000). Liquid versus solid carbohydrate: Effects on food intake and body weight. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders, 24(6), 794–800.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Doak, C. M., Visscher, T. L. S., Renders, C. M., & Seidell, J. C. (2006). The prevention of overweight and obesity in children and adolescents: A review of interventions and programmes. [Review]. Obesity Reviews, 7(1), 111–136.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Drewnowski, A., & Bellisle, F. (2007). Liquid calories, sugar, and body weight. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 85(3), 651–661.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duffey, K. J., Gordon-Larsen, P., Shikany, J. M., Guilkey, D., Jacobs, D. R., Jr, & Popkin, B. M. (2010). Food price and diet and health outcomes: 20 years of the CARDIA study. Archives of Internal Medicine, 170(5), 420–426.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duffey, K. J., & Popkin, B. M. (2007). Shifts in patterns and consumption of beverages between 1965 and 2002. Obesity (Silver Spring), 15(11), 2739–2747.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ebbeling, C. B., Feldman, H. A., Osganian, S. K., Chomitz, V. R., Ellenbogen, S. J., & Ludwig, D. S. (2006). Effects of decreasing sugar-sweetened beverage consumption on body weight in adolescents: A randomized, controlled pilot study. Pediatrics, 117(3), 673–680.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Epstein, L. H., Dearing, K. K., Handley, E. A., Roemmich, J. N., & Paluch, R. A. (2006). Relationship of mother and child food purchases as a function of price: A pilot study. [Article]. Appetite, 47(1), 115–118.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandes, M. M. (2008). The effect of soft drink availability in elementary schools on consumption. Journal of American Diet Association, 108(9), 1445–1452.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelstein, E. A., Zhen, C., Nonnemaker, J., & Todd, J. E. (2010). Impact of targeted beverage taxes on higher- and lower-income households. Archives of Internal Medicine, 170(22), 2028–2034.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher, J. M., Frisvold, D., & Tefft, N. (2010a). Taxing soft drinks and restricting access to vending machines to curb child obesity. Health Affairs (Millwood), 29(5), 1059–1066.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher, J. M., Frisvold, D., & Tefft, N. (2010b). The effects of soft drink taxes on child and adolescent consumption and weight outcomes. Journal of Public Economics, 94(2010), 967–974.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flodmark, C. E., Marcus, C., & Britton, M. (2006). Interventions to prevent obesity in children and adolescents: a systematic literature review. [Review]. International Journal of Obesity, 30(4), 579–589.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Forshee, R. A., & Storey, M. L. (2004). Evaluation of the association of demographics and beverage consumption with dental caries. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 42(11), 1805–1816.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • French, S. A. (2003). Pricing effects on food choices. Journal of Nutrition, 133(3), 841S–843S.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gortmaker, S. L., Swinburn, B. A., Levy, D., Carter, R., Mabry, P. L., Finegood, D. T., et al. (2011). Changing the future of obesity: Science, policy, and action. Lancet, 378(9793), 838–847. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60815-5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, K. D. (2008). What is the required energy deficit per unit weight loss? International Journal of Obesity (London), 32(3), 573–576.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, K. D., Sacks, G., Chandramohan, D., Chow, C. C., Wang, Y. C., Gortmaker, S. L., et al. (2011). Quantification of the effect of energy imbalance on bodyweight. Lancet, 378(9793), 826–837.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hartstein, J., Cullen, K. W., Reynolds, K. D., Harrell, J., Resnicow, K., & Kennel, P. (2008). Impact of portion-size control for school a la carte items: Changes in kilocalories and macronutrients purchased by middle school students. Journal of American Diet Association, 108(1), 140–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hattersley, L., Irwin, M., King, L., & Allman-Farinelli, M. (2009). Determinants and patterns of soft drink consumption in young adults: A qualitative analysis. Public Health Nutrition, 12(10), 1816–1822.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Homer, J. B., & Hirsch, G. B. (2006). System dynamics modeling for public health: Background and opportunities. American Journal of Public Health, 96(3), 452–458.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Institute of Medicine (2010). Bridging the evidence gap in obesity prevention: A framework to inform decision making.

  • James, J., Thomas, P., Cavan, D., & Kerr, D. (2004). Preventing childhood obesity by reducing consumption of carbonated drinks: Cluster randomized controlled trial. BMJ, 328(7450), 1237–1239.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • James, J., Thomas, P., & Kerr, D. (2007). Preventing childhood obesity: Two year follow-up results from the Christchurch obesity prevention programme in schools (CHOPPS). BMJ, 335(7623), 762–765.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, D. B., Bruemmer, B., Lund, A. E., Evens, C. C., & Mar, C. M. (2009). Impact of school district sugar-sweetened beverage policies on student beverage exposure and consumption in middle schools. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 45(3 Suppl), S30–S37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, A. P., Homer, J. B., Murphy, D. L., Essien, J. D., Milstein, B., & Seville, D. A. (2006). Understanding diabetes population dynamics through simulation modeling and experimentation. American Journal of Public Health, 96(3), 488–494.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jordan, P. N., & Hall, K. D. (2008). Dynamic coordination of macronutrient balance during infant growth: Insights from a mathematical model. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 87(3), 692–703.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kann, L., Telljohann, S. K., & Wooley, S. F. (2007). Health education: Results from the school health policies and programs study 2006. The Journal of School Health, 77(8), 408–434.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levy, D. T., Bauer, J. E., & Lee, H. R. (2006). Simulation modeling and tobacco control: Creating more robust public health policies. American Journal of Public Health, 96(3), 494–498.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levy, D. T., Cummings, K. M., & Hyland, A. (2000). Increasing taxes as a strategy to reduce cigarette use and deaths: Results of a simulation model. Preventive Medicine, 31(3), 279–286.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levy, D. T., Friend, K. B., & Wang, Y. C. (2011a). A review of the literature on policies directed at the youth consumption of sugar sweetened beverages. Advances in Nutrition, 2, 182S–200S.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levy, D. T., Gitchell, J. G., & Chaloupka, F. (2004). The effects of tobacco control policies on smoking rates: A tobacco control scorecard. Journal of Public Health Management & Practice, 10, 338–351.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levy, D. T., Mabry, P. L., Wang, Y. C., Gortmaker, S., Huang, T. T., Marsh, T., et al. (2011b). Simulation models of obesity: A review of the literature and implications for research and policy. Obesity Reviews, 12(5), 378–394. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2010.00804.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lightwood, J., Bibbins-Domingo, K., Coxson, P., Wang, Y. C., Williams, L., & Goldman, L. (2009). Forecasting the future economic burden of current adolescent overweight: An estimate of the coronary heart disease policy model. American Journal of Public Health, 99(12), 2230–2237.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lo, E., Coles, R., Humbert, M. L., Polowski, J., Henry, C. J., & Whiting, S. J. (2008). Beverage intake improvement by high school students in Saskatchewan, Canada. Nutrition Research, 28(3), 144–150.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ludwig, D. S., Peterson, K. E., & Gortmaker, S. L. (2001). Relation between consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks and childhood obesity: A prospective, observational analysis. Lancet, 357(9255), 505–508.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Malik, V. S., Popkin, B. M., Bray, G. A., Despres, J. P., & Hu, F. B. (2010). Sugar-sweetened beverages, obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular disease risk. Circulation, 121(11), 1356–1364.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Malik, V. S., Schulze, M. B., & Hu, F. B. (2006). Intake of sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain: A systematic review. [Review]. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 84(2), 274–288.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matson-Koffman, D. M., Brownstein, J. N., Neiner, J. A., & Greaney, M. L. (2005). A site-specific literature review of policy and environmental interventions that promote physical activity and nutrition for cardiovascular health: What works? [Review]. American Journal of Health Promotion, 19(3), 167–193.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mattes, R. D. (1996). Dietary compensation by humans for supplemental energy provided as ethanol or carbohydrate in fluids. Physiological Behavior, 59(1), 179–187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milstein, B., Jones, A., Homer, J. B., Murphy, D., Essien, J., & Seville, D. (2007). Charting plausible futures for diabetes prevalence in the United States: A role for system dynamics simulation modeling. Preventing Chronic Disease, 4(3), A52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Toole, T. P., Anderson, S., Miller, C., & Guthrie, J. (2007). Nutrition services and foods and beverages available at school: Results from the school health policies and programs study 2006. The Journal of School Health, 77(8), 500–521.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Plachta-Danielzik, S., Landsberg, B., Bosy-Westphal, A., Johannsen, M., Lange, D., & Muller, M. J. (2008). Energy gain and energy gap in normal-weight children: Longitudinal data of the KOPS. Obesity (Silver Spring), 16(4), 777–783.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, L. M., Auld, M. C., Chaloupka, F. J., O’Malley, P. M., & Johnston, L. D. (2007). Access to fast food and food prices: Relationship with fruit and vegetable consumption and overweight among adolescents. Advances in Health Economics and Health Services Research, 17, 23–48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, L. M., & Chaloupka, F. J. (2009). Food prices and obesity: Evidence and policy implications for taxes and subsidies. Milbank Quarterly, 87(1), 229–257.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, L. M., Chriqui, J., & Chaloupka, F. J. (2009). Associations between state-level soda taxes and adolescent body mass index. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 45(3 Suppl), S57–S63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, M. B., Novak, S. A., & Fiore, S. S. (2009). The impact of removing snacks of low nutritional value from middle schools. Health Education & Behavior, 36(6), 999–1011.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seymour, J. D., Yaroch, A. L., Serdula, M., Blanck, H. M., & Khan, L. K. (2004). Impact of nutrition environmental interventions on point-of-purchase behavior in adults: A review. [Article]. Preventive Medicine, 39, S108–S136.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shi, L. (2010). The association between the availability of sugar-sweetened beverage in school vending machines and its consumption among adolescents in California: A propensity score matching approach. Journal Environmental Public Health, 735613.

  • Sichieri, R., Paula Trotte, A., de Souza, R. A., & Veiga, G. V. (2009). School randomised trial on prevention of excessive weight gain by discouraging students from drinking sodas. Public Health Nutrition, 12(2), 197–202.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, T. A., Lin, B. H., & Lee, J.-Y. (2010). Taxing caloric sweetened beverages: Potential effects on beverage consumption, caloric intake, and obesity. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sterman, J. D. (2006). Learning from evidence in a complex world. American Journal of Public Health, 96(3), 505–514.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sturm, R., & Datar, A. (2005). Body mass index in elementary school children, metropolitan area food prices and food outlet density. Public Health, 119(12), 1059–1068.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sturm, R., & Datar, A. (2008). Food prices and weight gain during elementary school: 5-year update. Public Health, 122(11), 1140–1143.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sturm, R., Powell, L. M., Chriqui, J. F., & Chaloupka, F. J. (2010). Soda taxes, soft drink consumption, and children’s body mass index. Health Aff (Millwood), 29(5), 1052–1058.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swinburn, B. A. (2008). Obesity prevention: the role of policies, laws and regulations. Australia and New Zealand Health Policy, 5, 12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swinburn, B. A., Jolley, D., Kremer, P. J., Salbe, A. D., & Ravussin, E. (2006). Estimating the effects of energy imbalance on changes in body weight in children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 83(4), 859–863.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Meijgaard, J., Fielding, J. E., & Kominski, G. F. (2009). Assessing and forecasting population health: Integrating knowledge and beliefs in a comprehensive framework. Public Health Report, 124(6), 778–789.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vartanian, L. R., Schwartz, M. B., & Brownell, K. D. (2007). Effects of soft drink consumption on nutrition and health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 97(4), 667–675.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y. C. (2011). The potential impact of sugar sweetened beverage Taxes in New York State Columbia (Ed.).

  • Wang, Y. C., Bleich, S. N., & Gortmaker, S. L. (2008). Increasing caloric contribution from sugarsweetened beverages and 100 % fruit juices among US children and adolescents, 1988–2004. Pediatrics, 121(6), e1604–e1614.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y. C., Gortmaker, S. L., Sobol, A. M., & Kuntz, K. M. (2006). Estimating the energy gap among US children: A counterfactual approach. Pediatrics, 118(6), e1721–e1733.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y. C., Ludwig, D. S., Sonneville, K., & Gortmaker, S. L. (2009). Impact of change in sweetened caloric beverage consumption on energy intake among children and adolescents. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 163(4), 336–343.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woodward-Lopez, G., Gosliner, W., Samuels, S. E., Craypo, L., Kao, J., & Crawford, P. B. (2010). Lessons learned from evaluations of California’s statewide school nutrition standards. American Journal of Public Health, 100(11), 2137–2145.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yamada, M., Murakami, K., Sasaki, S., Takahashi, Y., & Okubo, H. (2008). Soft drink intake is associated with diet quality even among young Japanese women with low soft drink intake. Journal of American Diet Association, 108(12), 1997–2004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yen, S. T., Lin, B. H., & Smallwood, D. M. (2004). Demand for nonalcoholic beverages: The case of low-income households. Agribusiness, 20(3), 309–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhen, C., Wohlgenant, M., Karns, S., & Kaufman, M. K. (2011). Habit formation and demand for sugar-sweetened beverages. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 93(1), 175–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng, Y., & Kaiser, H. M. (2008). Advertising and US nonalcoholic beverage demand. Agricultural and Resource Economics Review, 37, 2.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This study was funded by the Academy for Educational Development, Project #4245-01 and the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Healthy Eating Research Program, Contract #63048.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Cancer Control, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA

    David T. Levy

  2. PIRE, Pawtucket, RI, USA

    Karen B. Friend

Authors
  1. David T. Levy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Karen B. Friend
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to David T. Levy.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Levy, D.T., Friend, K.B. Simulation Modeling of Policies Directed at Youth Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Consumption. Am J Community Psychol 51, 299–313 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-012-9535-5

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-012-9535-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation