Abstract
Previous research has linked higher levels of hopelessness about one’s future to violent behavior during adolescence; however, little is known about this relationship over time for adolescents. Using growth curve modeling, we tested the association between future orientation and violent behavior across the high school years of adolescence in a sample of African American youth (n = 681). Variation based on demographic characteristics (i.e., sex, SES, previous violence) was explored. At baseline, differences in violent behavior varied by demographic characteristics. Overall, violent behavior decreased with age. Higher levels of future orientation were associated with greater decreases in violent behavior over time. Demographic characteristics were not associated with change in violent behavior overtime. Our findings suggest that future orientation can act as a promotive factor for at risk African American youth. Interventions that help support the development of future goals and aspirations could play a vital role in violence prevention efforts.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adelabu, D. H. (2008). Future time perspective, hope, and ethnic identity among African American adolescents. Urban Education, 43, 347–360.
Alston, S. T. (2009). Future aspirations and African-American adolescents: An exploration of aspirations as a protective factor for positive youth development of African-American adolescent in public housing. ProQuest Information & Learning. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences, 70 (5-). (2009-99211-206).
Arnett, J. J. (2000). High hopes in a Grim World: Emerging adults’ views of their futures and “Generation X”. Youth & Society, 31, 267–286.
Aronowitz, T. (2005). The role of “envisioning the future” in the development of resilience among at-risk youth. Public Health Nursing, 22, 200–208.
Birnbaum, A. S., Lytle, L. A., Hannan, P. J., Murray, D. M., Perry, C. L., & Forster, J. L. (2003). School functioning and violent behavior among young adolescents: A contextual analysis. Health Education Research, 18, 389–403. doi:10.1093/her/cyf036.
Blitstein, J. L., Murray, D. M., Lytle, L. A., Birnbaum, A. S., & Perry, C. L. (2005). Predictors of violent behavior in an early adolescent cohort: Similarities and differences across genders. Health Education & Behavior, 32, 175–194.
Bolland, J. M. (2003). Hopelessness and risk behavior among adolescents living in high-poverty inner-city neighborhoods. Journal of Adolescence, 26, 145–158.
Borowsky, I. W., Widome, R., & Resnick, M. D. (2008). Young people and violence. International Encyclopedia of Public Health, 6, 675–684.
Brookmeyer, K. A., Henrich, C. C., & Schwab-Stone, M. (2005). Adolescents who witness community violence: Can parent support and pro-social cognitions protect them from committing violence? Child Development, 76, 917–929.
Centers for Disease Control, Prevention (CDC). (2008). School-associated student homicides-United States, 1992–2006. MMWR Morbidity & Mortality Weekly Report, 57(2), 33–36.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2009). Youth violence: Fact sheet. Retrieved 10/15, 2009, from http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/factsheets/yvfacts.htm.
Cook, P. J., & Ludwig, J. (2004). Does gun prevalence affect teen gun carrying after all? Criminology, 41, 27–54.
Dahlberg, L. L., & Potter, L. B. (2001). Youth violence: Developmental pathways and prevention challenges. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 20((1S)), 3–14.
DuRant, R. H., Altman, D., Wolfson, M., Barkin, S., Kreiter, S., & Krowchuk, D. (2000). Exposure to violence and victimization, depression, substance use, and the use of violence by young adolescents. Journal of Pediatrics, 137, 707–713.
DuRant, R. H., Cadenhead, C., Pendergrast, R. A., & Slavens, G. (1994). Factors associated with the use of violence among urban black adolescents. American Journal of Public Health, 84, 612–617.
DuRant, R. H., Getts, A. G., Cadenhead, C., & Woods, E. R. (1995). The association between weapon carrying and the use of violence among adolescents living in and around a public housing. Journal of Adolescent Health, 17, 376–480.
Farrington, D. P. (1989). Early predictors of adolescent aggression and adult violence. Violence and Victim, 4, 79–100.
Farrington, D. P. (2007). Origins of violent behavior over the life span. In D. J. Flannery, A. T. Vazsonyi, & I. D. Waldman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of violent behavior and aggression (pp. 19–48). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Gilman, R., Dooley, J., & Florell, D. (2006). Relative levels of hope and their relationship with academic and psychological indicators among adolescents. Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology, 25, 166–178.
Gorman-Smith, D., Henry, D. B., & Tolan, P. H. (2004). Exposure to community violence and violence perpetration: The protective effects of family functioning. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 33, 439–449.
Graham, J., & Bowling, B. (1995). Young people and crime. London: Home Office.
Greene, A. L. (1986). Future-time perspective in adolescence: The present of things future revised. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 15, 99–111.
Herrenkohl, T. I., Maguin, E., Hill, K. G., Hawkins, J. D., Abbott, R. D., & Catalano, R. F. (2000). Developmental risk factors for youth violence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 26, 176–186.
Kashani, J. H., Reid, J. C., & Rosenberg, T. K. (1989). Levels of hopelessness in children and adolescents: A developmental perspective. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 496–499.
Kerpelman, J. L., Eryigit, S., & Stephens, C. J. (2008). African American adolescents’ future education orientation: Associations with self-efficacy, ethnic identity, and perceived parental support. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 997–1008.
Lorion, R. P., & Saltzman, W. (1993). Children’s exposure to community violence: Following a path from concern to research to action. Psychiatry, 56, 55–65.
Lynch, W. F. (1965). Images of hope: Imagination as healer of hopeless. Baltimore: Helica Press.
McCabe, K. M., & Barnett, D. (2000). The relation between familial factors and the future orientation of urban, African American sixth graders. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 9, 491–508.
McGee, R. (1984). Hope: A factor in crisis resolution. Advances in Nursing Science, 6, 34–43.
Miller, J. F., & Powers, M. J. (1988). Development of an instrument to measure hope. Nursing Research, 37, 6–10.
Nakao, K., & Treas, J. (1990). Computing 1989 occupational prestige scores. General social survey methodological reports (No. 70). Chicago: National Opinion Research Center.
National Adolescent Health Information Center. (2007). 2007 fact sheet on violence: Adolescents and young adults.
Nurmi, J. (1989a). Planning, movitation, and evaluation in orientation to the future: A latent structure analysis. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 30, 64–71.
Nurmi, J. (1989b). Development of orientation to the future during early adolescence: A four-year longitudinal study and two cross-sectional comparisons. International Journal of Psychology, 24, 195–214.
Nurmi, J. (1991). How do adolescents see their future? A review of the development of future orientation and planning. Developmental Review, 11, 1–59.
Nurmi, J. E., Poole, M. E., & Seginer, R. (1995). Tracks and transitions: A comparison of adolescent future-oriented goals, explorations, and commitments in Australia, Israel, and Finland. International Journal of Psychology, 30, 355–375.
Nurmi, J., & Pulliainen, H. (1991). The changing parent-child relationship, self-esteem, and intelligence as determinants of orientation to the future during early adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 14, 35–51.
Nuttin, J. (1964). The future time perspective in human motivation and learning: Proceedings from the 17th international congress of psychology. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Co.
Piaget, J. (1932). The moral judgment of the child. New York: Harcourt Brace.
Raudenbush, S., & Bryk, A. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Resnick, M. D., Bearman, P. S., & Blum, R. W. (1997). Protecting adolescents from harm: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health. Journal of the American Medical Association, 278, 823–832.
Resnick, M., Ireland, M., & Borowsky, I. (2004). Youth violence perpetration: What protects? What predicts? Findings from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Journal of Adolescent Health, 35, 424e1–424e10.
Robbins, R. N., & Bryan, A. (2004). Relationships between future orientation, impulsive sensation seeking, and risk behaviors among adjudicated adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19, 428–445.
Sampson, R. J., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1997). Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277(5328), 918.
Scientific Software International. (2005). Hierarchical linear models. Chicago: SSI Inc.
Snyder, C. R., Hoza, B., Pelham, W. E., & Rapoff, M. (1997). The development and validation of the Children’s Hope Scale. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 22, 399–421.
Snyder, H. N., & Sickmund, M. (2006). Juvenile offenders and victims: 2006 National report. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
Spirito, A., Williams, C. A., Stark, L. J., & Hart, K. J. (1988). The hopelessness scale for children: Psychometric properties with normal and emotionally disturbed adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 16, 445–458.
Stotland, E. (1969). The psychology of hope. San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass.
Thurnherr, J., Michaud, P., Berchtold, A., Akre, C., & Suris, J. (2008). Youths carrying a weapon or using a weapon in a fight: What makes the difference? Health Education Research. doi:10.1093/her/cyn017.
Trommsdorff, G. (1983). Future orientation and socialization. International Journal of Psychology, 18, 381–406.
Valle, M. F., Huebner, E. S., & Suldo, S. M. (2004). Further evaluation of the Children’s Hope Scale. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 22, 320–337.
Valois, R. F., MacDonald, J. M., Bretous, L., Fischer, M. A., & Wanzer Drane, J. (2002). Risk factors and behaviors associated with adolescent violence and aggression. American Journal of Health Behavior, 26, 454–464.
Zimmerman, M. A., Caldwell, C. H., & Bernat, D. H. (2002). Discrepancy between self-report and school record GPA: Correlates with psychosocial outcomes among African American adolescents. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32, 86–109.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Stoddard, S.A., Zimmerman, M.A. & Bauermeister, J.A. Thinking About the Future as a Way to Succeed in the Present: A Longitudinal Study of Future Orientation and Violent Behaviors Among African American Youth. Am J Community Psychol 48, 238–246 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-010-9383-0
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-010-9383-0