Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

How Do Relationships Support Parenting? Effects of Attachment Style and Social Support on Parenting Behavior in an At-Risk Population

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
American Journal of Community Psychology

Abstract

The importance of supportive relationships for new parents has been the focus of both research and parenting interventions. Attachment style, typically viewed as a relatively stable trait reflecting one’s comfort in social relationships, as well as social support, or one’s perception of the social context, have both been found to be important for fostering engaged, involved parenting. Less is known, however, about how these variables work together to influence parenting behavior, especially in families at higher risk for negative child outcomes. Data were collected from 152 urban, predominantly African American, low-income parents when their children were 14 and 36 months of age. Results suggest that parents with more social support show greater increases in the frequency of positive parent–child activities over time, but that this effect is mediated by mothers’ attachment style, specifically, their level of anxious/ambivalent attachment. Mothers with more social support tended to be less anxious/ambivalent about close relationships, and this in turn led to increases over time in the frequency of parent–child interactions. Mothers’ tendency to avoid close relationships, however, while correlated with social support, was unrelated to changes in parenting behavior. Implications of these findings for program development, parenting, and the malleability of attachment style based on social context are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Treatment effects were not expected at the 14-month assessment, since many parents had only received a few months of service (average length of service at 14 months was about 5 months). It was also not entirely surprising that treatment effects were not seen for the dependent variable of parent–child activities at 36 months, for several reasons. First, there were considerable difficulties in implementing the EHS program during the first 2 years at this site, as they struggled to adapt to Head Start program guidelines. The EHS National Study (Love et al. 2002) found that program effects for the national study were significantly more positive for those sites that demonstrated early and full implementation. Further, concurrent ethnographic work at this site suggests that there were numerous instances of “spillover” of treatment from the program group to comparison group participants that occurred (McAllister et al. 2004) because of the program’s strong emphasis on community development and involvement.

  2. Models were also analyzed without covariates; results were the same.

References

  • Abidin, R. R. (1992). The determinants of parenting behavior. Journal of Child Clinical Psychology, 21(4), 407–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, J. P., McElhaney, K. B., Kupernic, G. P., & Jodl, K. M. (2004). Stability and change in attachment security across adolescence. Child Development, 75, 1792–1805.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anders, S. L., & Tucker, J. S. (2000). Adult attachment style, interpersonal communication competence, and social support. Personal Relationships, 7, 379–390.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andresen, P. A., & Telleen, S. L. (1992). The relationship between social support and maternal behaviors and attitudes: A meta-analytic review. American Journal of Community Psychology, 20(6), 751–774.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arbuckle, J. L. (1996). Full information estimation in the presence of incomplete data. In G. A. Marcoulides, & R. E. Schumacker (Eds.), Advanced structural equation modeling: Issues and techniques. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bayley, N. (1993). Bayley scales of infant development, second edition: Manual. New York: The Psychological Corporation, Harcourt, Brace & Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belle, D. (1982). Lives in stress: Women and depression. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belsky, J., Hertzog, M., & Rovine, M. (1986). Causal analyses of multiple determinants of parenting: Empirical and methodological advances. In M. E. Lamb, A. L. Brown, & B. Rogoff (Eds.), Advances in developmental psychology (Vol. 4, Chap. 4). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Vol. 2. Separation. NY: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradley, R. H., & Caldwell, B. (1984). 174 Children: A study of the relationships between the home environment and cognitive development during the first five years. In A. W. Gottfried (Ed.), Home environment and early cognitive development. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brody, G., & Flor, D. L. (1998). Maternal resources, parenting practices, and child competence in rural, single-parent African American families. Developmental Psychology, 69, 803–816.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks-Gunn, J., & Duncan, G. J. (1997). The effects of poverty on children. Future of Children, 7(2), 55–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ceballo, R., & McLoyd, V. C. (2002). Social support and parenting in poor, dangerous neighborhoods. Child Development, 73(4), 1310–1321.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coble, H. M., Gantt, D. L., & Mallinckrodt, B. (1996). Attachment, social competency, and the capacity to use social support. In G. R. Pierce, B. R. Sarason, & I. G. Sarason (Eds.), Handbook of social support and the family. Plenum series on stress and coping (pp. 141–172). New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 385–396.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., & Williamson, G. M. (1988). Perceived stress in a probability sample of the United States. In S. Spacapan & S. Oskamp (Eds.), The social psychology of health (pp. 31–67). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collins, N. L., & Feeney, B. C. (2004). Working models of attachment shape social support: Evidence from experimental and observational studies. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 87, 363–383.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collins, N. L., & Read, S. J. (1990). Adult attachment, working models, and relationship quality in dating couples. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 58, 644–663.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connell, J. P., & Wellborn, J. G. (1991). Competence, autonomy, and relatedness: A motivational analysis of self-system processes. In M. Gunnar, & L. A. Stroufe (Eds.), Minnesota Symposium on Child Psychology: Vol 23, Self-processes in development (pp. 43–77). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cowan, P. A., Cohn, D. A., Cowan, C. P., & Pearson, J. L. (1996). Parents’ attachment histories and children’s externalizing and internalizing behaviors: Exploring family systems models of linkage. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(1), 53–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cozzarelli, C., Karafa, J. A., Collins, N. L., & Tagler, M. J. (2003). Stability and change in adult attachment styles: Associations with personal vulnerabilities, life events, and global construals of self and others. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 22, 315–346.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crittenden, P. M., & Claussen, A. H. (2000). The organization of attachment relationships: Maturation, culture, and context. NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crowell, J. A., & Feldman, S. (1989) Assessment of mothers’ working models of relationships: Some clinical implications. Infant Mental Health Journal, 10, 173–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crowell, J. A., & Treboux, D. (1995). A review of adult attachment measures: Implications for theory and research. Social Development, 4(3), 294–327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cutrona, C. E., & Russell, D. W. (1987). The provisions of social relationships and adaptation to stress. Advances in personal relationships, Vol. 1 (pp. 37–67). JAI Press.

  • Cutrona, C. E., Russell, D. W., Hessling, R. M., Brown, P., & Murry, V. (2000). Direct and moderating effects of community context on the psychological well-being of African American women. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 79, 1088–1101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cutrona, C., & Troutman, B. R. (1986). Social support, infant temperament, and parenting self-efficacy: A mediational model of postpartum depression. Child Development, 57, 1507–1518.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davila, J., Burge, D., & Hammen, C. (1997). Why does attachment change? Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 74, 468–481.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davila, J., Karney, B. R., & Bradbury, T. N. (1999). Attachment change processes in the early years of marriage. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 76, 783–802.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, M. L., Nievar, M. A., & Wright, C. (2003). Attachment security among mothers and their young children living in poverty: Associations with maternal, child, and contextual characteristics. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 49(2), 154–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dressler, W. (1985). Extended family relationships, social support and mental health in a southern black community. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 26, 39–48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Feeney, J. A. (2002). Early parenting and parental attachment: Links with offspring’s attachment and perceptions of social support. Journal of Family Studies, 8(1), 5–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fenson, L., Pethick, S., Renda, C., Cox, J. L., Dale, P. S., & Reznick, J. S. (2000). Short-form versions of the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventories. Applied Psycholinguistics, 21, 95–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furstenberg, F. F. Jr. (1993). How families manage risk and opportunity in dangerous neighborhoods. In W. J. Wilson (Ed.), Sociology and the public agenda (pp. 231–258). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, B. L. & Furrer, C. (2004). Correlations between parent–child activities and parenting and child outcome measures in the EHS national dataset. Unpublished data.

  • Gomby, D. S., Culross, P. L., & Behrman, R. E. (1999). Home visiting: Recent program evaluations – analysis and recommendations. Home Visiting: Recent Program Evaluations, The Future of Children, 9(1), 4–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hannon, P., Weinberger, J., & Nutbrown, C. (1991). A study of work with parents to promote early literacy development. Research Papers in Education, 6(2), 77–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. R. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 511–524.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. R. (1994). Attachment as an organizational framework for research on close relationships. Psychological Inquiry, 5, 1–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Izzo, C., Weiss, L., Shanahan, T., & Rodriguez-Brown, F. (2000). Parental self-efficacy and social support as predictors of parenting practices and children’s socioemotional adjustment in Mexican immigrant families. In J. F. Gillespie, & J. Primavera (Eds.), Diverse families, competent families: Innovations in research and preventive intervention practice (pp. 197–213).

  • Klebanov, P. K., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Duncan, G. J. (1994). Does neighborhood and family poverty affect mothers’ parenting, mental health, and social support? Journal of Marriage and Family, 56, 441–455.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Korfmacher, J., Adam, E., Ogawa, J., & Egeland, B. (1997). Adult attachment: Implications for the therapeutic process in a home visitation intervention. Applied Developmental Science, 1(1), 43–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kotchick, B. A., Dorsey, S., & Heller, L. (2005). Predictors of parenting among African American single mothers: Personal and contextual factors. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67, 448–460.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Love, J., Kisker, E., Ross, C. M., Schochet, P. Z, Brooks-Gunn, J., Paulsell, D., Boller, K., Constantine, J., Vogel, C., Fuligni, A. S., & Brady-Smith, C. (2002). Making a difference in the lives of infants and toddlers and their families. U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. .

  • MacKinnon, D. P., Warsi, G., & Dwyer, J. H. (1995). A simulation study of mediated effect measures. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 30, 41–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Main, M., & Goldwyn, R. (1984). Predicting rejection of her infant from mother’s representation of her own experience: Implications for abuse-abusing intergenerational cycle. Child Development, 8, 203–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maruyama G. M. (1998). Basics of structural equation modeling. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • McAllister, C. L, Green, B. L, & Terry, M. A. (under review). New approaches to research and evaluation with child health and development programs: Experiences with Early Head Start. Family & Community Health.

  • McLoyd, V. C. (1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychologist, 53(2), 185–204.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mikulincer, M. (1998). Adult attachment style and affect regulation: Strategic variations in self-appraisals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(2), 420–435.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mikulincer, M., & Horesh, N. (1999). Adult attachment style and the perception of others: The role of projective mechanisms. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 76, 1022–1034.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moreira, J. M., de Fatima Silva, M., Moleiro, C., Aguiar, P., Andrez, M., Bernardes, S., & Afonso, H. (2003). Perceived social support as an offshoot of attachment style. Personality & Individual Differences, 34, 485–501.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ognibene, T. C., & Collins, N. L. (1998). Adult attachment styles, perceived social support and coping strategies. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 15(3), 323–345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olds, D., Kitzman, H., Cole, R., & Robinson, J. (1997). Theoretical foundations of a program of home visitation for pregnant women and parents of young children. Journal of Community Psychology, 25(1), 9–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rholes, W. S., Simpson, J. A., & Blakely, B. (1995). Adult attachment styles and mothers’ relationships with their young children. Personal Relationships, 2, 35–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rholes, W. S., Simpson, J. A., Blakely, B. S., Lanigan, L., & Allen, E. A. (1997). Adult attachment styles, the desire to have children, and working models of parenthood. Journal of Personality, 65(2), 357–385.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Solky, J. A. (1996). What is supportive about social support? On the psychological needs for autonomy and relatedness. In G. R. Pierce, B. R. Sarason, & I. G. Sarason (Eds.), Handbook of Social Support and the Family (pp. 249–268). New York, NY: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarason, B. R., Sarason, R. G., & Pierce, G. R. (1990). Traditional views of social support and their impact on assessment. In B. Sarason, I. Sarason, & G. Pierce (Eds.), Social Support: An Interact ional View (pp. 1–26). NY: Wiley & Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scharfe, E., & Bartholomew, K. (1994). Reliability and stability of adult attachment patterns. Personal Relationships, 1, 23–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simpson, J. A. (1990). Influence of attachment styles on romantic relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 971–980.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simpson, J. A., Rholes, W. S., & Nelligan, J. S. (1992). Support seeking and support giving within couples in an anxiety-provoking situation: The role of attachment styles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 434–446.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simpson, J. A., Rholes, W. S., & Phillips, D. (1996). Conflict in close relationships: An attachment perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(5), 899–914.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, E. A., & Wellborn, J. G. (1994). Coping during childhood and adolescence: A motivational perspective. In D. L. Featherman, & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Life-span development and behavior (Vol. 12) (pp. 91–133). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sobel, M. E. (1982). Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. In S. Leinhardt (Ed.), Sociological methodology (pp. 290–312). Washington, DC: American Sociological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sroufe, L. A., Carlson, E. A., Levy, A. K., & Egeland, B. (1999). Implications of attachment theory for developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 1–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tamis-Lemonda, C., Rodriguez, E., Pan, B., Raikes, H., Luze, G., & Spellman, M. (2004). Children’s early literacy experiences as predictors of language outcomes at age 3: A longitudinal analysis of Early Head Start children. Unpublished manuscript.

  • Taylor, R. D., Casten, R., & Flickinger, S. (1993). The influence of kinship social support on the parenting experiences and psychosocial adjustment of African American adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 29, 382–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, M. J., & Carlson, E. A. (1995). Associations among adult attachment representations, maternal sensitivity, and infant-mother attachment in a sample of adolescent mothers. Child Development, 66, 69–79.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, P. (1999). Structure and functions of internal working models of attachment and their role for emotion regulation. Attachment & Human Development, 1(3), 291–306.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by a grant from the U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children, Youth and Families, Head Start Bureau. We want to thank our data collection staff, and the staff and parents at Family Foundations for their contributions. Thanks also to Jason Newsom and to two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on earlier versions of this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. NPC Research, Inc, 4380 SW Macadam Ave, Suite 530, Portland, OR, 97239, USA

    Beth L. Green & Carrie Furrer

  2. University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, USA

    Carol McAllister

Authors
  1. Beth L. Green
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Carrie Furrer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Carol McAllister
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Beth L. Green.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Green, B.L., Furrer, C. & McAllister, C. How Do Relationships Support Parenting? Effects of Attachment Style and Social Support on Parenting Behavior in an At-Risk Population. Am J Community Psychol 40, 96–108 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-007-9127-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-007-9127-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation