Abstract
Providing sustainable energy and cleaning water pollution are actually major societal issues requiring new catalysts. In particular, transition metal phosphides are emerging as effective photocatalytic materials. Here we review synthetic strategies for metal phosphides by various methods. We discuss passivation strategies for engineering electronic and structural properties of metal phosphide nanocomposites. Electronic properties, stability and activity depend upon the type of metal phosphides, either phosphorus-rich or metal-rich. Typically, a high content of phosphorous in metal phosphides improves the catalysis. The crystalline structure of metal phosphides also varies and depends upon their chemical composition. We present the latest developments in H2 production and photodegradation of aqueous pollutants using metal phosphide-based heterojunctions, with focus on type-II-, Z-scheme- and S-scheme-based heterojunctions.
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Reproduced with permission from Callejas et al. 2016) Copyright American Chemical Society). b Schematic illustration of the synthetic process of metal phosphide nanostructures. c–d Transmission electron microscopy image and Small area electron diffraction pattern of CoP and Ni2P nanoplates. (Reproduced with permission from Liang et al. 2017) with permission from Elsevier. The figure shows structures of various metal phosphides and morphologies based on synthetic routes. (LaP-Lanthanum phosphide)
Copyright Royal Society of Chemistry. c Transmission electron microscopy image of Ni12P5 nanoparticles. d Inset shows the diameter distribution of Ni12P5 nanoparticles and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy image of a Ni12P5 nanoparticle. Inset of fast Fourier transform pattern of the Ni12P5 nanoparticle (Huang et al. 2014) Copyright American Chemical Society. The figure shows phase changes in the catalysts with temperature variation. The increase in reduction temperature confirms the generation of more Ni2P particles and increase in size of Ni2P phases
Reproduced with permission from Li et al. 2019b) Copyright Elsevier. d Photocatalytic mechanism shows intimate contact of quantum dots of molybdenum phosphide (MoP) and cadmium sulphide (CdS) semiconductor (Reproduced with permission from Yang et al. 2021) Copyright Elsevier. e Photocatalytic mechanism of Co2P/CdS for H2 evolution with triethanolamine (TEOA) showing reactions at conduction band (CB) and valence band (VB) (Reproduced with permission from Zhu et al. 2019) Copyright Elsevier. f Mn0.67Co1.33P nanodots/g-C3N4 photocatalytic mechanism of H2 evolution. (Wu et al. 2019a) Copyright from John Wiley and Sons. The figure shows various heterojunctions based on metal phosphides and corresponding photocatalytic mechanisms for effective hydrogen generation using sacrificial agent. (D—donor)
Copyright John Wiley and Sons. d and e Scanning electron microscopy and ttransmission electron microscopy images of Ni2P/NiCo2S4@MoS4. f Photocatalytic mechanism of hydrogen generation using triethanolamine (TEOA) with Ni2P/NiCo2S4@MoS4 (Reproduced with permission from Zhao et al. 2019a) Copyright Elsevier.The figure shows the micrographs of phosphides-based binary and ternary heterojunctions along with the band structure and possible charge flow or photocatalyti mechanism for photocatalytic hydrogen evolution. (RGO—reduced graphene oxide, NHE—normal hydrogen electrode)
Copyright Elsevier. c Infra-red spectra of CdS and 10% Co2P/CdS. d Density functional theory study of Co2P/CdS composite. e Schematic mechanism of Co2P/CdS composite under ultraviolet-visible and near infra-red light (NIR) irradiation (Reproduced with permission from (Hua et al. 2019) Copyright American Chemical Society; (VB—valence band, CB—conduction band, TEOA—triethanolamine. The figure represents examples of various Z-schemes heterojunctions–their band structures–performance in hydrogen evolution)
Reproduced with permission from Zhao et al. 2019b) Copyright Springer. c Photocurrent response curves of different samples with Indium tin oxide (ITO). d Proposed mechanism for H2 evolution over, carbon nitride nanotubes/N-doped carbon dots/Ni2P (CNT/NCDs/Ni2P) composite. (Reproduced with permission from Jiao et al. 2020) Copyright Elsevier. The figure shows photocatalytic mechanism of heterojunction based on metal phosphides with and without a mediator or co-catalyst. The redox mediator as reduced graphene oxide facilitates the Z-scheme transfer for better charge carrier movement
Reproduced with permission from Hu et al. 2020) Copyright Elsevier. The figure shows microscopic images and atomic force microscopic images of for sulphide-oxide-phosphides-based heterojunction photo catalysts representing an effective step-scheme (S-scheme) mechanism for hydrogen generation
Reproduced with permission from Shi et al. 2020) Copyright Elsevier. c–e Mott–Schottky plots of C3N4, ZnSnO3 and Cu3P versus normal hydrogen electrode (NHE). f The band structure diagrams of C3N4, ZnSnO3 and Cu3P (Reproduced with permission from Guo et al. 2021) Copyright Elsevier. The figure shows the photoluminescence spectra showing reduced recombination on account of heterojunction formation. For determining the band structure, Mott–Schottky plots are employed
Reproduced with permission from Li et al. 2020) Copyright Elsevier. The figure shows role of metallic silver in the metal phosphides-based heterojunction. Silver nanoparticles help in indirect charge transfer as well as generation of facile photo-excited electrons. (VB—valence band, CB—conduction band, AgNPs—silver nanoparticles, TEOA—triethanolamine, BP—black phosphorous)
Reproduced with permission from Li et al. 2020) Copyright Elsevier. The figure shows the development of internal electric field in junctions of semiconductors with different Fermi levels. The generation and presence of active oxygen species are confirmed by electron spin resonance spectra. (Ef—Fermi energy, Φ—work function, BP—black phosphorous)
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Abbreviations
- TMPs:
-
Transition metal phosphides
- CB:
-
Conduction band
- VB:
-
Valance band
- HER:
-
Hydrogen evolution reaction
- OER:
-
Oxygen evolution reaction
- CVD:
-
Chemical vapour deposition
- XRD:
-
X-ray diffraction analysis
- XPS:
-
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
- TOP:
-
Tri-n-octylphosphine
- HR-TEM:
-
High-resolution transmission electron microscopy
- FESEM:
-
Field emission scanning electron microscope
- CNT:
-
C3N4 nanotubes
- AFM:
-
Atomic force microscopy
- FTIR:
-
Fourier transform infrared
- RGO:
-
Reduced graphene oxide
- DFT:
-
Density functional theory
- BP:
-
Blue phosphorene
- RhB:
-
Rhodamine B
- PL:
-
Photoluminescence
- TC:
-
Tetracycline
- LEV:
-
Levofloxacin
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Amit Kumar designed the review, interpreted and wrote the original draft. Pooja Shandilya drew the figures and tables of the manuscript; Dai-Viet N. Vo provided the technical advice and support. Gaurav Sharma contributed to the original draft. Mu. Naushad participated in the revision of the manuscript and literature review. Pooja Dhiman participated in the revision of the manuscript and literature review. Florian J. Stadler interpreted the review findings and provided the technical support.
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Kumar, A., Shandilya, P., Vo, DV.N. et al. Metallic and bimetallic phosphides-based nanomaterials for photocatalytic hydrogen production and water detoxification: a review. Environ Chem Lett 20, 597–632 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01331-7
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01331-7