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Universals and individuality in facial behavior—past and future of an evolutionary perspective

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Abstract

Multiple dimensions of facial expression research are reviewed with emphasis in the study of species’ homology in both facial action single components and patterns or gestalten. Research over the last 30 years has revealed human universal patterns and some cross-species gestalten that appear as homologies. Recently, researchers are looking into the importance of individuality markers in facial behavior, which can play an important role in the fitness of individuals living in complex social systems and thus might be traceable in their evolutionary path. Chimpanzees, bonobos, and humans were in the center of most of this research with research results pointing toward homologies within the Homo–Pan clade.

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Notes

  1. Huber was a German anatomist who performed extensive dissections of nonhuman primate and human faces. His findings on nonhuman primate facial muscles are the most quoted but his report and comments on human racial differences in facial musculature and expression are generally omitted.

  2. Imbedded rules on what can and cannot be shown in the face. These rules also regulate context and actor, i.e., who can and in what circumstances, display what in the face.

  3. Being expressive is, in most studies, synonymous with honest signaler; the actor’s emotions and other states are easily perceived and correctly interpreted by others.

  4. Expressiveness here is in the sense of diversity in the use of distinct facial action gestalten.

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Acknowledgements

The author’s research on facial behavior was financially supported by the EU grants Praxis XXI/BD/9406/96 and POCTI/PSI/57547/2002.

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  1. Department of Engineering & Natural Sciences, Biology Section, Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias, Campo Grande 376, Lisboa, 1749-024, Portugal

    Augusta Gaspar

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  1. Augusta Gaspar
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Correspondence to Augusta Gaspar.

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Communicated by R. F. Oliveira

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Gaspar, A. Universals and individuality in facial behavior—past and future of an evolutionary perspective. acta ethol 9, 1–14 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10211-006-0010-x

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