Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

On Prototypical Facial Expressions Versus Variation in Facial Behavior: What Have We Learned on the “Visibility” of Emotions from Measuring Facial Actions in Humans and Apes

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
The Evolution of Social Communication in Primates

Part of the book series: Interdisciplinary Evolution Research ((IDER,volume 1))

Abstract

It has long been recognized that behavior evolves as do other traits and that it may have great impact on evolution. It tends to be conservative when survival and fast responding are at stake, and because of that, similar patterns can be found across populations or species, typical in their form and intensity, and often also typical in context and consequence. Such fixed stereotypic patterns that evolved to communicate are known as displays, and their phylogenies can virtually be traced. In this chapter, we contrast and discuss two coexisting trends in the study of the meaning and origins of human facial expression: one, with a tradition of exploring cross-cultural commonalities in the recognition of facial expression, that may indicate species-specific displays of emotion (prototypical facial expressions) and another that builds upon the growing evidence that such expressive prototypes are outnumbered by a diversity of facial compositions that, even in emotional situations, vary in relation to culture, context, group, maturation, and individual factors. We present behavioral studies that look at links between basic emotion and facial actions in both human and non-human primates and discuss the role of multiple factors in facial action production and interpretation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adolphs R, Tranel D, Hamann S, Young AW, Calder AJ, Phelps EA, Anderson A, Lee GP, Damasio AR (1999) Recognition of facial emotion in nine individuals with bilateral amygdala damage. Neuropsychologia 37:1111–1117

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Andrew RJ (1963) The origin and evolution of the calls and facial expressions of the primates. Behaviour 20:1–109

    Google Scholar 

  • Aviezer H, Hassin RR, Ryan J, Grady C, Susskind J, Anderson A, Moscovitch M, Bentin S (2008) Angry, disgusted, or afraid? Studies on the malleability of emotion perception. Psychol Sci 19(7):724–732. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02148.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aviezer H, Trope Y, Todorov A (2012) Holistic person processing: faces with bodies tell the whole story. J Pers Soc Psychol 103(1):20–37. doi:10.1037/a0027411

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bard K, Gaspar A, Vick SJ (2011) Chimpanzee faces under the magnifying glass: emerging methods reveal cross-species similarities and individuality. In: Weiss A, King J, Murray L (eds) Personality and temperament in nonhuman primates. Springer, New York, pp 193–231

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Barrett LF (2006) Are emotions natural kinds? Perspect Psychol Sci 1:28–58

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barrett LF, Kensinger EA (2010) Context is routinely encoded during emotion perception. Psychol Sci 21(4):595–599

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barrett LF, Mesquita B, Gendron M (2011) Context in emotion perception. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 20(5):286–290

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bateson P (2004) The active role of behaviour in evolution. Biol Philos 19(2):283-298. doi:10.1023/B:Biph.0000024468.12161.83 (Book review Evolution and learning: the Baldwin effect reconsidered)

  • Bateson P, Martin P (2000) Design for a life: how behavior and personality develop. Simon and Schuster, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennett DS, Bendersky M, Lewis M (2002) Expressivity at 4 months: a context by expression analysis. Infancy 3(1):97–113

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berdecio S, Nash LT (1981) Chimpanzee visual communication. Facial, gestural and postural expressive movement in young, captive Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Anthropological Research Papers n.26. Arizona state University, Tempe, AZ

    Google Scholar 

  • Bould E, Morris N, Wink B (2008) Recognising subtle emotional expressions: the role of facial movements. Cogn Emot 22(8):1569–1587

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown DE (1991) Human universals. McGraw-Hill, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Calvo MG, Avero P, Lundqvist D (2006) Facilitated detection of angry faces: initial orienting and processing efficiency. Cogn Emot 20:785–811

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calvo MG, Nummenmaa L, Avero P (2010) Recognition advantage of happy faces in extrafoveal vision: featural and affective processing. Vis Cogn 18(9):1274–1297. doi:10.1080/13506285.2010.481867

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campos JJ, Campos RG, Barrett KC (1989) Emergent themes in the study of emotional development and emotion regulation. Dev Psychol 25:394–402

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Camras LA (1992) Expressive development and basic emotion. Cogn Emot 6(3–4):269–283. doi:10.1080/02699939208411072

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Camras LA, Malatesta C, Izard CE (1991) The development of facial expressions in infancy. In: R. Feldman & B. Rimé (eds.) Fundamentals of nonverbal behavior. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 73–105

    Google Scholar 

  • Camras LA, Meng Z, Ujiie T, Dharamsi S, Miyake K, Oster H, Wang L, Cruz J, Murdoch A, Campos J (2002) Observing emotion in infants: facial expression, body behavior, and rater judgments of responses to an expectancy-violating event. Emotion 2(2):179–193

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carroll JM, Russell JA (1996) Do facial expressions signal specific emotions? Judging emotion from the face in context. J Pers Soc Psychol 70(2):205–218. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.2.205

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman CR (1995) The affective dimension of pain: a model. In: Bromm B, Desmedt JE (eds) Pain and the brain: from nociception to cognition. Advances in pain research and therapy, vol 22. Raven Press, New York, pp 283–301

    Google Scholar 

  • Chevalier-Skolnikoff S (1982) A cognitive analysis of facial behavior in Old World monkeys, apes, and human beings. In: Snowdon CT, Brown CH, Petersen MR (eds) A cognitive analysis of facial behavior in Old World monkeys, apes, and human beings. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 303–368

    Google Scholar 

  • Crombez G, Eccleston C, Baeyens F, Eelen P (1998) When somatic information threatens, catastrophic thinking enhances attentional interference. Pain 75(2–3):187–198

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Darwin C (1872/1965) The expression of the emotions in man and animals. University of Chicago Press, Chicago

    Google Scholar 

  • de Gelder B, Böcker KB, Tuomainen J, Hensen M, Vroomen J (1999) The combined perception of emotion from voice and face: Early interaction revealed by human electric brain responses. Neurosci Lett 260:133–136

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Waal F (1992) Chimpanzee politics: power and sex among apes. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore

    Google Scholar 

  • de Waal F (1996) Good natured: the origins of right and wrong in humans and other animals. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA

    Google Scholar 

  • Dickson KL, Walker H, Fogel A (1997) The relationship between smile type and play type during parent-infant play. Dev Psychol 33(6):925–933

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dimberg U (1982) Facial reactions to facial expressions. Psychophysiology 19(6):643–647

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dimberg U (1988) Facial expressions and emotional reactions: a Psychobiological analysis of human social behavior. In: Wagner H (ed) Social psychophysiology: theory and clinical practice. John Wiley, New York, pp.131–150

    Google Scholar 

  • Dimberg U (1997) Facial reactions: rapidly evoked emotional responses. J Psychophysiol 11(2):115–123

    Google Scholar 

  • Dimberg U, Thunberg M (1998) Rapid facial reactions to emotional facial expressions. Scand J Psychol 39:39–45. doi:10.1111/1467-9450.00054

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dimberg U, Thunberg M (2012) Empathy, emotional contagion, and rapid facial reactions to angry and happy facial expressions. PsyCh Journal 1:118–127. doi:10-1002/pchj.4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duchenne GB (1862/1990) The mechanism of human facial expression. In: Ed. and translated by Cuthbertson A. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Eibl-Eibesfeldt I (1989) Human ethology. Aldine de Gruyter, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberger NI, Lieberman MD (2005) Why it hurts to be left out: the neurocognitive overlap between physical and social pain. In: Williams KD, Forgas JP, Hippel Wv (eds) The social outcast: ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying. Psychology Press, New York, pp 109–130

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberger NI, Lieberman MD, Williams KD (2003) Does rejection hurt? An fMRI study of social exclusion. Science 302(5643):290–292. doi:10.1126/science.1089134

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ekman, P (1972) Universal and cultural differences in facial expressions of emotions. In: Cole JK (ed) Nebraska symposium on motivation 1971. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, pp 207–238

    Google Scholar 

  • Ekman P (1973) Cross cultural studies of facial expression. In: Ekman P (ed) Darwin and facial expression: a century of research in review. Academic Press, New York, pp 169–222

    Google Scholar 

  • Ekman P (1984) Expression and the nature of emotion. In: Scherer K, Ekman P (eds). Erlbaum, Hillsdale, pp 319–344

    Google Scholar 

  • Ekman P (1992) Facial expressions of emotion: an old controversy and new findings. Phil.Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 335:63–69

    Google Scholar 

  • Ekman P (1999) Facial expressions handbook of cognition and emotion. In: Dalgleish T, Power M (eds) Handbook of cognition and emotion. Wiley, New York, pp 301–320

    Google Scholar 

  • Ekman P, Friesen WV (1976) Pictures of facial affect. Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto

    Google Scholar 

  • Ekman P, Friesen WV (1978) Facial action coding system (FACS). Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto, CA

    Google Scholar 

  • Ekman P, Sorenson ER, Friesen W (1969) Pan-cultural elements in the facial displays of emotion. Science 164:86–88

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elfenbein HA, Ambady N (2002) On the universality and cultural specificity of emotion recognition: a meta-analysis. Psychol Bull 128(2):203–235

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Esteves F, Dimberg U, Öhman A (1994a) Automatically elicited fear: conditioned skin conductance responses to masked facial expressions. Cogn Emot 8:393–413

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Esteves F, Parra C, Dimberg U, Öhman A (1994b) Nonconscious associative learning: pavlovian conditioning of skin conductance responses to masked fear-relevant facial stimuli. Psychophysiology 31:375–385

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez-Dols JM, Carrera P, Crivelli C (2011) Facial behavior while experiencing sexual excitement. J Nonverbal Behav 35(1):63–71. doi:10.1007/s10919-010-0097-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez-Dols JM, Ruiz-Belda MA (1997) Spontaneous facial behaviour during intense emotional episodes: artistic truth and optical truth. In: Russell JA, Fernandez-Dols JM (eds) The psychology of facial expression. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp 255–274

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Fogel A, Nelson-Goens C, Hsu H (2000) Do different infant smiles reflect different positive emotions? Soc Dev 9:497–520

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fridlund AJ (1994) Human facial expression: an evolutionary view. Academic Press, San Diego

    Google Scholar 

  • Gao X, Maurer D (2009) Influence of intensity on children’s sensitivity to happy, sad, and fearful facial expressions. J Exp Child Psychol 102(4):503–521

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gaspar A (2001) Comportamento facial em Pan e Homo. Contribuição para o estudo evolutivo das expressões faciais [Facial behavior in Pan and Homo. Contribution to the evolutionary study of facial expressions]. Doctoral thesis, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisboa

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaspar A (2006) Universals and individuality in facial behavior-past and future of an evolutionary perspective. Acta Ethol 9(1):1–14. doi:10.1007/s10211-006-0010-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaspar A, Esteves FG (2012) Preschooler’s faces in spontaneous emotional contexts-how well do they match adult facial expression prototypes? Int J Behav Dev 36(5):348–357. doi:10.1177/0165025412441762

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaspar A, Esteves, FG, Dimberg (in prep) Decoding facial expression and emotional responses in adolescents and adults—how does it relate to emotional empathy?

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodall J (1986) The chimpanzees of Gombe: patterns of behavior. Harvard University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Gnepp J (1983) Children’s social sensitivity: inferring emotions from conflicting cues. Develop Psychol 25:277–288

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grammer K, Eibl-Eibesfeldt I (1990) The ritualization of laughter. In: Koch W (ed) Naturlichkeit der sprache und der kultur: Acta colloquii. Brockmeyer, Bochum, pp 192–214

    Google Scholar 

  • Grammer K, Oberzaucher E (2006) The reconstruction of facial expressions in embodied systems: New approaches to an old problem. ZiF Mitteilungen 2:14–31

    Google Scholar 

  • Guinsburg R (1999) Avaliação e tratamento da dor no recém-nascido. Jornal Pediatria 75(3):149–160

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hassin RR, Aviezer H, Bentin S (2013) Inherently ambiguous: facial expressions of emotions in context. Emotion Rev 5(1):60–65

    Google Scholar 

  • Hager JC, Ekman P (1979) Long distance transmission of facial affect signals. Ethol Sociobiol 1:77–82

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huber E (1930/1972) Evolution of facial musculature and facial expression. Reprinted in evolution of facial expression. Two accounts. Arno Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Huber E (1931) Evolution of facial musculature and facial expression. The John Oxford University Press, Baltimore (Hopkins Press: Humphrey Milford: London)

    Google Scholar 

  • Izard C (1971) The face of emotion. Appleton-Century Crofts, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Izard CE (1991) The psychology of emotions. Plenum Press, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Izard CE, Malatesta CZ (1987) Perspectives on emotional development: differential emotions theory of early emotional development. In: Osofsky JD (ed) Handbook of infant development, 2nd edn. Wiley Interscience, New York, pp 494–554

    Google Scholar 

  • Krumhuber EG, Schere KR (2011) Affect bursts: dynamic patterns of facial expression. Emotion 11(4):825–841

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lang PJ, Bradley MM, Cuthbert BN (1998) Emotion, motivation, and anxiety: brain mechanisms and psychophysiology. Biol Psychiat 44(12):1248–1263

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • LeDoux JE (1996) The emotional brain. Simon & Schuster, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Lemerise EA, Dodge KA (1993) The development of anger and hostile interactions. In: Lewis M, Haviland JM (eds) Handbook of emotions. Guilford Press, New York, pp 537–546

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindquist KA, Barrett LF (2008) Emotional complexity. In Lewis M, Haviland-Jones JM, Barrett LF (eds) Handook of emotions, 3rd ed. Guilford Press, New York, pp 513–532

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindquist KA, Barrett LF, Bliss-Moreau E, Russell JA (2006) Language and the perception of emotion. Emotion 6(1):125–138

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lorenz K (1967/1986) Evolution and modification of behavior. 2nd edn. University of Chicago Press, Chicago

    Google Scholar 

  • Manser MB, Seyfarth RM, Cheney DL (2002) Suricate alarm calls signal predator class and urgency. Trends Cogn Sci 6(2):56–58

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McFarland D (1987) The Oxford companion to animal behaviour. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • McGrew WC (1969) An ethological study of agonistic behaviour in preschool children. In Proceedings of the 2nd congress of primatology (Atlanta, Georgia, 1968) Karger, Basel, New York, pp 149–159

    Google Scholar 

  • McGrew WC (1972) An ethological study of children´s behavior. Academic Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Mehu M, Mortillaro M, Banziger T, Scherer KL (2012) Reliable facial muscle activation enhances recognizability and credibility of emotional expression. Emotion 12(4):701–715

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Messinger D, Mahoor MM, Chow S-M, Haltigan JD, Cadavid S, Cohn J (2014) Early emotional communication: novel approaches to interaction. In: Gratch J, Marsella S (eds) Social emotions in nature and artifact. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 162–212

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris JS, Öhman A, Dolan RJ (1998) Conscious and uncouscious emotional learning in the human amygdala. Nature 393:467–470

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Öhman A, Lundqvist D, Esteves F (2001) The face in the crowd revisited: a threat advantage with schematic stimuli. J Pers Soc Psychol 80(3):381–396. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.3.381

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Öhman A, Soares S, Juth P, Lindström B, Esteves F (2012) Evolutionary derived modulations of attention to two common fear stimuli: serpents and hostile humans. J Cogn Psychol 24:17–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oster H (2005) The repertoire of infant facial expressions: an ontogenetic perspective. In: Nadel J, Muir D (eds) Emotional development. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, pp 261–292

    Google Scholar 

  • Panksepp J (1998) Affective neuroscience: the foundations of human and animal emotions. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Panksepp J (2005) Affective consciousness: core emotional feelings in animals and humans. Conscious Cogn 14(1):30–80. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2004.10.004

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Panksepp J, Watt J (2011) Why does depression hurt? ancestral primary-process separation-distress (PANIC/GRIEF) and diminished brain reward (SEEKING) processes in the genesis of depressive affect. Psychiatry 74(1):5–13

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parr LA, Cohen M, de Waal F (2005) Influence of social context on the use of blended and graded facial displays in chimpanzees. Int J Primatol 26(1):73–103. doi:10.1007/s10764-005-0724-z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pellatt A (1979) The facial muscles of three African primates contrasted with those of Papio ursinus. South Afr J Sci 75:436–440

    Google Scholar 

  • Peleg J, Katzir G, Peleg O, Kamara M, Brodsky L, Hel-Or H, Keren D, Nevo A (2009) Facial expressions in various emotional states in congenitally blind and sighted subjects. Israel J Ecol Evol 55(1):11–30. doi:10.1560/IJEE.55.1.11

  • Plutchick R (1980a) Emotion: a psychoevolutionary synthesis. Harper & Row, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Plutchick R (1980b) Emotion: theory, research and experience, vol 1, theories of emotion. Academic Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Pollak SD, Kistler DJ (2002) Early experience is associated with the development of categorical representations for facial expressions of emotion. P Natl Acad Sci USA 99(13):9072–9076

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pollick AS, de Waal FB (2007) Ape gestures and language evolution. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104(19):8184–8189. doi:10.1073/pnas.0702624104

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Preuschoft S (1992) “Laughter” and “smile” in Barbary Macaques (Macaca sylvanus). Ethology 91(3):220–236. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1992.tb00864.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Preuschoft S, van Hooff JARAM (1997) The social function of “smile” and “laughter”. Variations across primate species and societies. In: Segestrale UC, Molnár P (eds) Nonverbal communication: where nature meets culture. Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, pp 171–190

    Google Scholar 

  • Righart R, De Gelder B (2008) Recognition of facial expressions is influenced by emotional scene gist. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci 8(3):264–272

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenstein D, Oster H (1997) Differential facial responses to four basic tastes in newborns. In: Ekman P, Rosenberg E (eds) What the face reveals: basic and applied studies of spontaneous expression using the facial action coding system. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 302–319

    Google Scholar 

  • Rozin P, Haidt J, McCauley CR (2008) Digust. In: Lewis M, Haviland-Jones JM (eds) Handbook of emotions, 3rd edn. Guilford Press, New York, pp 757–776

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell JA (1980) A circumplex model of affect. J Pers Soc Psychol 39(6):1161–1178. doi:10.1037/h0077714

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russel JA (2003) Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion. Psych Rev 110(1):145–172

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell JA (2006) Emotions are not modules. Can J Philos 32:53–72

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell J, Bullock M (1986) On the dimensions preschoolers use to interpret facial expression of emotion. Dev Psychol 22(1):97–102

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell JA, Fernandez-Dols JM (1997) What does a facial expression mean? In: Russell JA, Fernandez-Dols JM (eds) The psychology of facial expression. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp 3–30

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Shaver P, Schwartz J, Kirson D, Oconnor C (1987) Emotion knowledge: further exploration of a prototype approach. J Pers Soc Psychol 52(6):1061–1086. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1061

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scherer KR, Zentner MR, Stern D (2004) Beyond surprise: the puzzle of infants’ expressive reactions to expectancy violation. Emotion 4(4):389–402

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scherer KR, Elgring H (2007) Multimodal expression of emotion: affect programs or multimodal appraisal programms. Emotion 7(1):158–1711

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Slobodchikoff CN, Kiriazis J, Fischer C, Creef E (1991) Semantic information distinguishing individual predators in the alarm calls of Gunnison’s prairie dogs. Anim Behav 42(5):713–719

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sonntag CF (1924) The morphology and evolution of apes and man. Sons and Danielsson Ltd, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Soussignant R, Schaal B (2005) Emotional processes in human newborns: a functionalist perspective. In Nadel J, Muir D (eds) Emotional development. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 127–159

    Google Scholar 

  • Swindler DR, Wood CD (1973) An atlas of primate gross anatomy baboon, chimpanzee and man. University of Washington Press, Seattle

    Google Scholar 

  • Tanner JE, Byrne WB (1993) Concealing facial evidence of mood: perspective taking in a captive gorilla. Primates 34:451–457

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Hooff J (1962) Facial expressions in higher primates. Symp Zool Soc L 8:97–125

    Google Scholar 

  • van Hooff J (1967) The facial displays of the Catarrhine monkeys and apes. In: Morris D (ed) Primate ethology. Aldine, Chicago, pp 7–68

    Google Scholar 

  • van Hooff J (1972) A comparative approach to the phylogeny of laughter and smiling. In: Hinde RA (ed) Non-verbal communication. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 209–241

    Google Scholar 

  • van Hooff JARAM (1973) A structural analysis of the social behavior of a semi-captive group of chimpanzees. In: M. Von Cranach M, Vine I (eds) Social communication and movement. European Monographs in Social Psychology. Vol 4 Academic Press, London, pp 75–162

    Google Scholar 

  • Widen SC, Russell JA (2008) Children acquire emotion categories gradually. Cognitive Dev 23(2):291–312. doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2008.01.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Widen S (2013) Children’s interpretation of facial expressions: the long path from valence-based to specific discrete categories. Emot Rev 5(1):72–77

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams ACD (2002) Facial expression of pain: an evolutionary account. Behav Brain Scis 25(4):439–488

    Google Scholar 

  • Young G, Decarie TG (1977) An ethology-based catalogue of facial/vocal behaviors in infancy. Anim Behav 25(1):95–107

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

Funding for research on facial expression and perception of facial expression has been provided by the Portuguese national funding agency for science, research, and technology—FCT, through the following grants to A. Gaspar PTDC/PSI-PCO/104170/2008; POCTI/PSI/47547/2002;SFRH/BPD/26387/2005; PRAXIS XXI BD/9406/96); and to F. Esteves (PRAXIS/FCSH/C/PSI/90/96; POCTI/PSI/14118/2001). The authors wish to express their gratitude to José-Miguel Fernández-Dols, anonymous reviewers, and the editors for their comments on an earlier version of the manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centro de Investigação e Intervenção Social, ISCTE—Instituto Universitário de Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL), Lisboa, Portugal

    Augusta Gaspar, Francisco Esteves & Patrícia Arriaga

  2. Department of Social Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Sundsvall, Sweden

    Francisco Esteves

Authors
  1. Augusta Gaspar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Francisco Esteves
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Patrícia Arriaga
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Augusta Gaspar .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Philosophy of Science, University of Lisbon AppEEL, Lisbon, Portugal

    Marco Pina

  2. Centre for Philosophy of Science, University of Lisbon AppEEL, Lisbon, Portugal

    Nathalie Gontier

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Gaspar, A., Esteves, F., Arriaga, P. (2014). On Prototypical Facial Expressions Versus Variation in Facial Behavior: What Have We Learned on the “Visibility” of Emotions from Measuring Facial Actions in Humans and Apes. In: Pina, M., Gontier, N. (eds) The Evolution of Social Communication in Primates. Interdisciplinary Evolution Research, vol 1. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02669-5_6

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation