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Tracer tests and the structure of permeability in the Corallian limestone aquifer of northern England, UK

Tests de traçage et organisation de la perméabilité de l’aquifère carbonaté du “Corallian limestone” du Nord de l’Angleterre, Royaume-Uni

Pruebas de trazadores y la estructura de la permeabilidad en el acuífero de la caliza de Corallian en el norte de Inglaterra, UK

英国英格兰北部Corallian灰岩含水层示踪实验及渗透结构造

Testes de traçadores e estrutura da permeabilidade no aquífero calcário de Corallian, no norte de Inglaterra, Reino Unido

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Abstract

The Corallian limestone of northern England (UK) is widely exploited for water supplies and exhibits the karstic phenomena of sinking rivers, conduit development and groundwater velocities of several kilometres per day. To test a number of model-derived source protection zones and elucidate contaminant transport mechanisms in the aquifer, three tracer tests were conducted from a set of swallow-holes draining the River Derwent toward public water supply wells in the eastern part of the aquifer. Tracers used included: Enterobacter cloacae (bacteriophage), Photine C (optical brightener), sodium fluorescein (fluorescent dye) and sulphur hexafluoride (dissolved gas), the varying properties of which make them suitable analogues for different types of potential contaminant. Observed tracer transport times and arrival patterns indicate that tracer transport occurs through karstic channels embedded in a network of primary fissures which exert control over tracer concentrations once initial tracer plumes have passed. A dipole flow system is observed between the swallow-holes and the closest abstraction well, whilst previously modelled source protection zones do not accurately reflect either groundwater velocity or those areas of the aquifer supplying the wells. These findings imply that managing such aquifers for potential contamination should rely upon empirical tracer evidence for source-protection zone modelling.

Résumé

Le Corallian LImestone du Nord de l’Angleterre est largement exploité pour l’alimentation en eau potable et montre les phénomènes karstiques de perte, conduits en charge et vitesses d’écoulement de plusieurs kilomètres par jour. Pour tester un certain nombre de zones de protection modélisées, et élucider les mécanismes de transport de polluant dans l’aquifère, trois traçages ont été effectués depuis un ensemble de pertes drainant la rivière Derwent vers des puits d’alimentation en eau potable dans la partie Est de l’aquifère. Les traceurs utilisés incluaient: Enterobacter cloacae (bactériophage), Photine CU (azurant optique), fluorescéine sodique (traceur fluorescent), et hexafluorure de soufre (gaz dissous), dont les propriétés en font des marqueurs adaptés à différents types de polluants potentiels. Les temps de transport observés et les courbes de restitution indiquent que le transport du traceur a lieu dans des conduits karstiques pris dans un réseau de fissures primaires qui exercent un contrôle sur les concentrations des traceurs une fois les panaches initiaux dissipés. Un système d’écoulement à deux composantes est observé entre les pertes et le puits de prélèvement le plus proche, alors que les périmètres de protection modélisés antérieurement ne reflètent correctement ni la vitesse de l’eau souterrain ni les aires d’alimentation des puits. Ces conclusions impliquent que la gestion de tels aquifère vis à vis d’une pollution potentielle doit s’appuyer sur des résultats de traçages pour le tracé des périmètres de protection de la ressource.

Resumen

La caliza de Corallian del norte de Inglaterra (UK) está ampliamente explotada para el abastecimientos de agua y exhibe los fenómenos kársticos de ríos que se infiltran, desarrollo de conductos y velocidades de agua subterránea de varios kilómetros por día. Para probar un número de zonas de protección de fuentes derivadas de modelos y dilucidar los mecanismos de transporte de contaminantes en el acuífero se llevaron a cabo tres pruebas de trazadores a partir de un conjunto de sumideros que drenan el río Derwent hacia los pozos de abastecimiento público de agua en la parte este del acuífero. Los trazadores usados incluyeron: Enterobacter cloacae (bacteriófago), Photinia CU (abrillantador óptico), fluoresceína de sodio (colorante fluorescente) y hexafluoruro de azufre (gas disuelto), cuyas propiedades cambiantes los hacen análogos adecuados para los diferentes tipos de contaminantes potenciales. Los tiempos de transporte de los trazadores observados y los esquemas de arribo indican que el transporte de trazadores tiene lugar a través de canales kársticas integrados en una red de fisuras primarias que ejercen control sobre las concentraciones de los trazadores una vez que las plumas iniciales de los trazadores han pasado. Se observó un sistema de flujo dipolar entre los sumideros y los pozos de extracción más cercanos, en tanto que las zonas de protección de fuentes previamente modeladas no reflejaron con exactitud ni la velocidad de agua subterránea, ni aquellas áreas del acuífero que abastecen los pozos. Estos hallazgos implican que la gestión de tales acuíferos a la potencial contaminación deben basarse en la evidencia empírica de los trazadores para el modelado de zona de protección de las fuentes.

摘要

英国英格兰北部Corallian灰岩含水层被大量开采用于供水,产生了地下河现象,喀斯特导水通道发育,地下水流速每天几千米。为检测模拟得到的若干个保护源区,阐明含水层中污染物运移机理,在含水层东部地区通过一系列落水洞取Derwent河的水到公共用水生产井,并进行三次示踪试验。使用的示踪剂包括:阴沟肠杆菌(噬菌体)、Photine CU(荧光增白剂)、钠荧光素(荧光染料)以及六氟化硫(溶解性气体),他们多样化的特征可作为不同类型的潜在污染物的合适相似物。观测到的示踪剂运移时间以及到达类型表明示踪剂运移发生在嵌入到网状初等裂隙的喀斯特通道中,一旦最初的示踪剂晕经过,裂隙则控制示踪剂浓度。在落水洞和最近的抽水井中观测到偶极流动系统,起先模拟到得保护源区并没用精确地反映到地下水流速及给井供水的含水层区域。这些发现表明对于潜在污染物含水层的管理应该依赖于保护源区模拟得到的经验示踪证据。

Resumo

O calcário Corallian do norte de Inglaterra (Reino Unido) é amplamente explorado para abastecimento de água e apresenta fenómenos cársicos de formação de rios subterrâneos, desenvolvimento de canais subterrâneos e velocidades da água subterrânea de vários quilómetros por dia. Para testar um número de modelos derivados de zonas de proteção e elucidar sobre os mecanismos de transporte de contaminantes no aquífero, foram realizados três ensaios de traçador a partir de um conjunto de sumidouros que drenam o rio Derwent para furos de abastecimento público de água, na parte oriental do aquífero. Os traçadores usados incluíram: Enterobacter cloacae (bateriófago), Photine CU (branqueador óptico), fluoresceína sódica (corante fluorescente) e hexafluoreto de enxofre (gás dissolvido), cujas propriedades distintas os tornam análogos adequados para diferentes tipos de potenciais contaminantes. Os tempos de transporte dos traçadores e os padrões de chegada observados indicam que o transporte do traçador ocorre através de canais cársicos incorporados numa rede de fissuras primárias que exercem controlo sobre as concentrações do traçador após as plumas iniciais do traçador terem passado. Um sistema de fluxo de dipolo é observado entre os sumidouros e o furo de extração mais próximo, enquanto as zonas de proteção previamente modeladas não refletiam com precisão nem a velocidade das águas subterrâneas, nem as áreas do aquífero que abastecem os furos. Estas conclusões implicam que a gestão destes aquíferos em relação à potencial contaminação deve basear-se em evidências empíricas de traçadores para modelação de zonas de proteção.

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Acknowledgements

We thank the Natural Environment Research Council for a CASE Training Award to AF; the Environment Agency of England and Wales for data provision and additional funding; S. Houghton and T. Osborn (UCL) for technical support; and to T. Kincaid and an anonymous reviewer for constructive criticism of the manuscript. Bacteriophage were supplied and analysed by CREH Analytical of Leeds.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Environmental Geology and Geotechnical Consultants Ltd, 75 Rockdove Avenue, Hulme, Manchester, England, M15 5EH, UK

    Aidan Foley

  2. Department of Earth Sciences, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK

    Aidan Foley & Tim Atkinson

  3. Arup, Admiral House, Rose Wharf, 78 East Street, Leeds, LS9 8EE, UK

    Gerd Cachandt & Janine Franklin

  4. Yorkshire Water Services Ltd. Western House, Western Way, Bradford, BD6 2LZ, UK

    Fergus Willmore

  5. School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK

    Tim Atkinson

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  1. Aidan Foley
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  2. Gerd Cachandt
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Correspondence to Aidan Foley.

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Foley, A., Cachandt, G., Franklin, J. et al. Tracer tests and the structure of permeability in the Corallian limestone aquifer of northern England, UK. Hydrogeol J 20, 483–498 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-012-0830-x

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