Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Are parental autism spectrum disorder and/or attention-deficit/Hyperactivity disorder symptoms related to parenting styles in families with ASD (+ADHD) affected children?

  • Original Contribution
  • Published:
European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

An understudied and sensitive topic nowadays is that even subthreshold symptoms of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention-deficit/Hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in parents may relate to their parenting styles. The aim of this study was to explore the influence of (the combined) effect of child diagnosis (ASD or ASD + ADHD affected/unaffected children) and parental ASD and/or ADHD on parenting styles. Ninety-six families were recruited with one child with a clinical ASD (+ADHD) diagnosis, and one unaffected sibling. Parental ASD and ADHD symptoms were assessed using self-report. The Parenting Styles Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ) self- and spouse-report were used to measure the authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting styles. Fathers and mothers scored significantly higher than the norm data of the PSDQ on the permissive style regarding affected children, and lower on the authoritative and authoritarian parenting style for affected and unaffected children. Self- and spouse-report correlated modestly too strongly. Higher levels of paternal (not maternal) ADHD symptoms were suboptimally related to the three parenting styles. Further, two parent–child pathology interaction effects were found, indicating that fathers with high ADHD symptoms and mothers with high ASD symptoms reported to use a more permissive parenting style only towards their unaffected child. The results highlight the negative effects of paternal ADHD symptoms on parenting styles within families with ASD (+ADHD) affected offspring and the higher permissiveness towards unaffected offspring specifically when paternal ADHD and/or maternal ASD symptoms are high. Parenting training in these families may be beneficial for the well-being of all family members.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Rommelse NNJ, Franke B, Geurts HM, Hartman CA, Buitelaar JK (2010) Shared heritability of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 19(3):281–295

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Bishop DV, Maybery M, Maley A, Wong D, Hill W, Hallmayer J (2004) Using self-report to identify the broad phenotype in parents of children with autistic spectrum disorders: a study using the Autism-Spectrum Quotient. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 45(8):1431–1436

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Constatino JN, Todd RD (2005) Intergenerational transmission of subthreshold autistic traits in the general population. Biol Psychiatry 57:655–660

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Faraone SV, Kunwar A, Adamson J, Biederman J (2009) Personality traits among ADHD adults: implications of late-onset and subthreshold diagnoses. Psychol Med 39(4):685–693

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Groen WB, Rommelse N, de Wit T, Zwiers MP, van Meerendonck D, van der Gaag RJ, Buitelaar JK (2012) Visual scanning in very young children with autism and their unaffected parents. Autism Res Treat. Article ID 748467, pp 9

  6. Clark LA, Kochanska G, Ready R (2000) Mothers’ personality and its interaction with child temperament as predictors of parenting behavior. J Pers Soc Psychol 79(2):274–285

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Prinzie P, Stams GJM, Deković M, Reijntjes AHA, Belsky J (2009) The relations between parents’ Big Five personality factors and parenting: a meta-analytic review. J Pers Soc Psychol 97(2):351–362

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Cummings ME, Keller PS, Davies PT (2005) Towards a family process model of maternal and paternal depressive symptoms: exploring multiple relations with child and family functioning. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 46(5):479–489

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Wilson S, Durbin CE (2010) Effects of paternal depression on fathers’ parenting behaviors: a meta-analytic review. Clin Psychol Rev 30(2):167–180

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. van der Bruggen CO, Stams GJJM, Bögels SM (2008) Research review: the relation between child and parent anxiety and parental control: a meta-analytic review. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 49(12):1257–1269

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Woodruff-Borden J, Morrow C, Bourland S, Cambron S (2002) The behavior of anxious parents: examining mechanisms of transmission of anxiety from parent to child. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 31(3):364–374

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Bettelheim B (1967) The empty fortress: infantile autism and the birth of the self. Free Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  13. Silver WG, Rapin I (2012) Neurobiological basis of autism. Pediatr Clin North Am 59(1):45–61

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Baumrind D (1996) The discipline controversy revisited. Fam Rel 45(4):405–414

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Gau SS, Chou MC, Lee JC, Wong CC, Chou WJ, Chen MF, Soong WT, Wu YY (2010) Behavioral problems and parenting style among Taiwanese children with autism and their siblings. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 64(1):70–78

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Rutgers AH, van Ijzendoorn MH, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Swinkels SHN, van Daalen E, Dietz C, Naber FBA, Buitelaar JK, van Engeland H (2007) Autism, attachement and parenting: a comparison of children with autism spectrum disorder, mental retardation, language disorder, and non-clinical children. J Abnorm Child Psychol 35:859–870

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Woolfson L, Grant E (2006) Authoritative parenting and parental stress in parents of pre-school and older children with developmental disabilities. Child Care Health Dev 32(3):177–184

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Reed P, Osborne LA, McHugh L, Saunders J (2008) The effect of parenting behaviors on subsequent child behavior problems in autistic spectrum conditions. Res Autism Spectr Disord 2(2):249–263

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Siller M, Sigman M (2002) The Behaviors of parents of children with autism predict the subsequent development of their children’s communication. J Autism Dev Disord 32(2):77–89

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Wachtel K, Carter AS (2008) Reaction to diagnosis and parenting styles among mothers of young children with ASDs. Autism 12(5):575–594

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Freitag CM (2007) The genetics of autistic disorders and its clinical relevance: a review of the literature. Mol Psychiatry 12(1):2–22

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Pamploma FA, Pandolfoa P, Savoldia R, Daniel R, Predigera S, Takahashi RN (2009) Environmental enrichment improves cognitive deficits in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR): relevance for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 33(7):1153–1160

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Rommelse NNJ, Franke B, Geurts HM, Hartman CA, Buitelaar JK (2010) Shared heritability of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiarty 19(3):281–295

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Ronald A, Simonoff E, Kuntsi J, Asherton P, Plomin R (2008) Evidence for overlapping genetic influences on autistic and ADHD behaviours in a community twin sample. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 49(5):535–542

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Rowlandson PH, Smith C (2009) An interagency service delivery model for autistic spectrum disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Child Care Health Dev 35(5):681–690

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Baumrind D (1973) The development of instrumental competence through socialization, vol 7. University of Minnesota Press, Minnesota Symposium on Child Psychology, Minneapolis

    Google Scholar 

  27. Baumrind D (1991) Effective parenting during the early adolescent transition. In: Cowan PA, Hetherington M (eds) Family transitions. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, pp 111–163

    Google Scholar 

  28. Lee SM, Daniels MH, Kissinger DB (2006) Parental influences on adolscent adjustment: parenting styles versus parenting practices. Fam J 14(3):253–259

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Rogers MA, Wiener J, Marton I, Tannock R (2009) Supportive and controlling parental involvement as predictors of children’s academic achievement: relations to children’s ADHD symptoms and parenting stress. Sch Ment Health 1:89–102

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Johnston C, Mash EJ, Miller N, Ninowski JE (2012) Parenting in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Clin Psychol Rev 32:215–228

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Harpin VA (2005) The effect of ADHD on the life of an individual, their family, and community from preschool to adult life. Arch Dis Child 90:i2–i7

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Herring S, Gray K, Taffe J, Tonge B, Sweeney D, Einfeld S (2006) Behaviour and emotional problems in toddlers with pervasive developmental disorders and developmental delay: associations with parental mental health and family functioning. J Intellect Disabil Res 50(12):874–882

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Baumrind D (1996) The discipline controversy revisted. Fam Rel 45:105–414

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Alizadeh H, Andries C (2002) Interaction of parenting styles and attention deficit hyperactivty disorder in Iranian parents. Child Fam Behav Ther 24(3):37–52

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Bögels SM, Lehtonen A, Restifo K (2010) Mindful parenting in mental health care. Mindfulness (NY) 1(2):107–120

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Hinshaw SP (2002) Preadolescent girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: I. Background characteristics, comorbidity, cognitive and social functioning, and parenting practices. J Consult Clin Psychiatry 70(5):1086–1098

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Johnston C, Mash EJ (2001) Families of children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder: review and recommendations for future research. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 4(3):183–207

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Lange G, Sheerin D, Carr A, Dooley B, Barton D, Lawlor M, Belton M, Doyle M (2005) Family factors associated with attention deficit hyperactivity and emotional disorders in children. Assoc Fam Ther Syst Pract 27:76–96

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Goldstein L, Harvey E, Friedman J (2007) Examining subtypes of behavior problems among 3-years-old children. Part III: investigating differences in parenting stress. J Abnorm Child Psychol 35:125–136

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Keown LJ, Woodward LJ (2002) Early parent-child relations and family functioning of preschool boys with pervasive hyperactivity. J Abnorm Child Psychol 30:283–294

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Robledo-Rámon P, García-Sánchez JN (2012) The family environment of students with learning disabilities and ADHD, Learning Disabilities. In: Dr Sittaprapaporn W (ed), pp 129–148

  42. Cartwright KL, Bitsakou P, Daley D, Gramzow RH, Psychigiou L, Simonoff E, Thompson MJ, Sonuga-Barke EJS (2011) Disentangling child and family influences on maternal expressed emotion toward children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 50(10):1042–1053

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Rutter M, Barley A, Berement SK, LeCouteur A, Lord C, Pickles A (2003) Social communication questionnaire (SCQ). CA Western Psychological Service, Los Angeles

    Google Scholar 

  44. van Steijn DJ, Richards JS, Oerlemans AM, de Ruiter SW, van Aken MAG, Franke B, Buitelaar JK, Rommelse NNJ (2012) The co-occurence of autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms in parents of children with ASD or ASD with ADHD. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 53(9):954–963

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Le Couteur A, Lord C, Rutter M (2003) The autism diagnostic interview—revised (ADI-R). Western Psychological Services, Los Angeles

    Google Scholar 

  46. Conners CK (1997) Conners’ rating scales revised user’s manual. Multi-health systems, North Tonawanda

    Google Scholar 

  47. Taylor E, Sandberg S, Thorley G, Giles S (1991) The epidemiology of childhood hyperactivity. Oxford University, New York

    Google Scholar 

  48. Rommelse NNJ, Oosterlaan J, Buitelaar JK, Faraone SV, Sergeant JA (2007) Time reproduction in children with ADHD and their non-affected siblings. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 46:582–590

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S, Skinner R, Martin J, Clubley E (2001) The autism-spectrum quotient (AQ): evidence from asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians. J Autism Dev Disord 31(1):5–17

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Auyeung B, Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S, Allison C (2008) The autism spectrum quotient: children’s Version (AQ-Child). J Autism Dev Disord 38(7):1230–1240

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Woodbury-Smith MR, Robinson J, Wheelwright S, Baron-Cohen S (2005) Screening adults for asperger syndrome using the AQ: a preliminary study of its diagnostic validity in clinical practice. J Autism Dev Disord 35(3):331–335

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Hoekstra RA, Bartels M, Cath DC, Boomsma DI (2008) Factor structure, reliability and criterion validity of the autism-spectrum qoutient (AQ): a study in Dutch population and patient groups. J Autism Dev Disord 38:1555–1566

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Hoekstra RA, Bartels M, Cath DC, Boomsma DI (2008) Factor structure, reliability and criterion validity of the autism-spectrum quotient (AQ): a study in Dutch population and patient groups. J Autism Dev Disord 38(8):1555–1566

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Hoekstra RA, Bartels M, Verweij CJH, Boomsma DI (2007) Heritability of autistic traits in the general population. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 161(4):372–377

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Conners CK, Erhardt D, Sparrow E (1998) Conners’ adult rating scales-self-report: long version (CAARS-S:L). Multi-health systems, North Tonawanda

    Google Scholar 

  56. Conners CK, Erhardt D, Sparrow E (1999) Conners’ adult ADHD rating scales technical manual. Multi-health systems, New York

    Google Scholar 

  57. Robinson CC, Mandleco B, Olsen SF, Hart CH (2001) The parenting styles and dimension questionnaire (PSDQ). In: Perlmutter BF, Touliatos T, Holden GW (eds) Handboek of family measurements techniques: Vol 3. Instruments and index. Sage, Thousand Oaks, pp 319–321

    Google Scholar 

  58. Robinson CC, Mandleco B, Olsen SF, Hart CH (1995) Authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting practices: development of a new measure. Psychol Rep 77:819–830

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Wierda-Boer H (2009) Work-to-family conflict, parenting stress, and parenting styles, Unpublished

  60. Dempster AP, Laird NM, Rubin DB (1977) Maximum likelihood from incomplete data via EM algorithm. J R Stat Soc B Met 39(1):1–38

    Google Scholar 

  61. Kendall J, Shelton K (2003) A typology of management styles in families with children with ADHD. J Fam Nurs 9:257–280

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Baron-Cohen S (1989) Are autistic children “behaviorists”? An examination of their mental-physical and appearance-reality distinctions. J Autism Dev Disord 19:579–600

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Baron-Cohen S (1991) The development of a theory of mind in autism: deviance or delay? Psychiatr Clin North Am 14:33–51

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Baron-Cohen S, Ring H, Moriarty J, Schmitz B, Costa D, Ell P (1994) Recognition of mental state terms: clinical findings in children with autism and a functional neuroimaging study in normal adults. Br J Psychiatry 165:640–649

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Noriuchi M, Kikuchi Y, Yoshiura T, Kira R, Shigeto H, Hara T, Tobimatsu S, Kamio Y (2010) Altered white matter fractional anisotropy and social impairment in children with autism spectrum disorder. Brain Res 1362:141–149

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Kooij JJS, Boonstra AM, Swinkels SHN, Bekker EM, de Noord I, Buitelaar JK (2008) Reliability, validity, and utility of instruments for self-report and informant report concerning symptoms of ADHD in adult patients. J Atten Disord 11(4):445–458

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. van der Ende J, Verhulst FC (2005) Informant, gender and age differences in ratings of adolescent problem behavior. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 14(3):117–126

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Wolraich ML, Warren LE, Bickman L, Simmons TBS, Doffing MA, Worley KA (2004) Assessing the impact of parent and teacher agreement on diagnosing attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Dev Behav Pediatr 25(1):41–47

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Deater-Deckard K, Lansford JE, Malone PS, Alampay LP, Sorbring E, Bacchini D, Bombi AS, Bornstein MH, Chang L, Di Giunta L, Dodge KA, Oburu P, Pastorelli C, Skinner AT, Tapanya S, Uribe Tirado LM, Zelli A, Al-Hassan SM (2011) The association between parental warmth and control in thirteen cultural groups. J Fam Psychol 25(5):790–794

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Chronis-Tuscano A, O’Brien KA, Johnston C, Jones HA, Clarke TL, Raggi VL, Rooney ME, Diaz Y, Pian J, Seymour KE (2011) The relation between maternal ADHD symptoms and improvement in child behavior following brief behavioral parent training is mediated by change in negative parenting. J Abnorm Child Pathol 39(7):1047–1057

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Chronis-Tuscano A, Stein MA (2012) Pharmacotherapy for parents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): impact on maternal ADHD and parenting. CNS Drugs 26(9):725–732

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Cortese S, Castelnau P, Morcillo C, Bonnet-Brilhault F (2012) Psychostimulants for ADHD-like symptoms in individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Expert Rev Neurother 12(4):461–473

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Participants RUoPPRAN (2005) Randomized, controlled, crossover trial of methylphenidate in pervasive developmental disorders with hyperactivity. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62:1266–1274

    Google Scholar 

  74. Tchaconasa A, Adesman A (2013) Autism spectrum disorders: a pediatric overview and update. Curr Opin Pediatr 25(1):130–144

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Chandler S, Charman T, Baird G, Simonoff E, Loucas T, Meldrum D, Scott M, Pickles A (2007) Validation of the social communication questionnaire in a population cohort of children with autism spectrum disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 46(10):1324–1332

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank parents, teachers, and children for participating in this project. This study was partly funded by a grant assigned to Dr. N. Rommelse by the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO grant # 91610024).

Conflict of interest

Van Steijn, Oerlemans, De Ruiter, van Aken, and Rommelse have no conflict of interest to disclose. In the past 4 years, Buitelaar has been a consultant to/member of advisory board of/and/or speaker for Janssen Cilag BV, Eli Lilly, Bristol-Myer Squibb, Organon/Shering Plough, UCB, Shire, Medice, Servier, and Servier.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Karakter Child and Adolescent Psychiatry University Centre, Reinier Postlaan 12, 6525 GC, Nijmegen, The Netherlands

    Daphne J. van Steijn, Anoek M. Oerlemans, Jan K. Buitelaar & Nanda N. J. Rommelse

  2. Department of Psychiatry, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands

    Anoek M. Oerlemans, Saskia W. de Ruiter & Nanda N. J. Rommelse

  3. Department of Developmental Psychology, University Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands

    Marcel A. G. van Aken

  4. Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands

    Jan K. Buitelaar

Authors
  1. Daphne J. van Steijn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Anoek M. Oerlemans
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Saskia W. de Ruiter
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Marcel A. G. van Aken
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Jan K. Buitelaar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Nanda N. J. Rommelse
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Daphne J. van Steijn.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

van Steijn, D.J., Oerlemans, A.M., de Ruiter, S.W. et al. Are parental autism spectrum disorder and/or attention-deficit/Hyperactivity disorder symptoms related to parenting styles in families with ASD (+ADHD) affected children?. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 22, 671–681 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-013-0408-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-013-0408-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation