Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Examining Subtypes of Behavior Problems Among 3-Year-Old Children, Part III: Investigating Differences in Parenting Practices and Parenting Stress

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study examined parenting of mothers and fathers of 3-year-old children who were classified as hyperactive (HYP), hyperactive and oppositional defiant (HYP/OD), and non-problem based on mothers' reports of behavior. Parents of children with HYP/OD were less warm, showed more negative affect, and more laxness than parents of non-problem children; however, contrary to prediction, they did not differ significantly from parents of children in the HYP group. Compared to mothers of non-problem children, mothers of children in the HYP/OD group reported significantly more parenting stress across all domains, whereas mothers of children in the HYP group only reported elevated levels of stress associated with having a difficult child. Theoretical and treatment implications are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. In Part I of this series (Harvey, Friedman-Weieneth, Goldstein, & Sherman, 2006), only a small group of children were identified who were reported to display ODD symptoms without hyperactivity. Furthermore, there was not sufficient validity for this group based on teachers' and observers' ratings to justify further analyses with this group.

  2. Stormont-Spurgin and Zentall (1995) studied children aged 3 to 5, but the majority were over 3 years old.

  3. The nurturance factor of a modified version of the Child Rearing Practices Report (Rickel & Biasatti, 1982) was administered in addition to the measures described below. However, this measure, which uses a 7-point Likert scale, was dropped from analyses due to limited variability (median score was 6.22 for mothers and 6.06 for fathers).

  4. We have chosen to use blocking variables rather than entering education as a covariate because of the potential pitfalls of using ANCOVAs to adjust for pre-existing group differences (Keppel & Wickens, 2004).

  5. Because correlations were modest, we also explored whether there were different patterns of results for different measures. The pattern of results was the same across measures of maternal negative affect/overreactivity. Mothers' self-reported laxness, but not observed laxness, differed across the groups in the same direction as the aggregated laxness score. The pattern was similar for audiotaped and videotaped maternal warmth except that the HYP/OD group was also significantly lower than the HYP group on audiotaped, but not videotaped, maternal warmth.

  6. We considered whether the reason that more parenting differences were observed across groups for mothers than for fathers may have been that mothers' reports were used to create the behavior groups. However, when fathers' reports were used to create subgroups, findings were similar to or somewhat weaker than when mothers' reports of children's behavior were used. Only fathers' self-reported overreactivity became significant when fathers' reports of child behavior were used. Observed paternal negative affect and observed paternal warmth, which were both significantly different across the groups using mothers' reports of children's behavior problems, were not significant using fathers' reports of children's behavior.

  7. Because this finding stands in contrast with previous research on physical punishment (Deater-Deckard et al., 1996), we also explored whether results would change if the Parenting Scale spanking item were used rather than the broad negativity/overreactivity scores. The pattern of means across the behavior groups for the spanking item was similar to that of the negativity/overreactivity scores among African American children.

References

  • Abidin, R. R. (1992). The determinants of parenting behavior. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 21, 407–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abidin, R. R. (1995). Parenting Stress Index Short Form Test Manual. Charlottesville, VA: Pediatric Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anastopoulos, A. D., Guevremont, D. C., Shelton, T. L., & DuPaul, G. J. (1992). Parenting stress among families of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 20, 503–520.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anthony, B. J., Glanville, D. N., Naiman, D. Q., Wanders, C., & Shaffer, S. (2005). The relationships between parenting stress, parenting behaviour and preschoolers' social competence and behaviour problems in the classroom. Infant and Child Development, 14, 133–154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Applegate, B., Lahey, B. B., Hart, E. L., Biederman, J., Hynd, G. W., Barkley, R. A., et al. (1997). Validity of the age-of-onset criterion for ADHD: A report from the DSM-IV field trials. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1211–1222.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arnold, D. S., O'Leary, S. G., Wolff, L. S., & Acker, M. M. (1993). The Parenting Scale: A measure of dysfunctional parenting in discipline situations. Psychological Assessment, 5, 137–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (1990). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A., Fischer, M., Edelbrock, C., & Smallish, L. (1991). The adolescent outcome of hyperactive children diagnosed by research criteria-III. Mother-child interactions, family conflicts, and maternal psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 233–255.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brennan, P. A., Grekin, E. R., & Mednick, S. A. (2003). Prenatal and perinatal influences on conduct disorder and serious delinquency. In B. B. Lahey, T. E. Moffitt, & A. Caspi (Eds.), Causes of conduct disorder and juvenile delinquency (pp. 319–341). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, J. M., DeWolfe, N. A., & Bawden, H. N. (1998). Assessment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in prechoolers. Child Neuropsychology, 4, 49–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calkins, S. D., Smith, C. L., Gill, K. L., & Johnson, M. C. (1998). Maternal interactive style across contexts: Relations to emotional, behavioral, and physiological regulation during toddlerhood. Social Development, 7, 350–369.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, S. B., Ewing, L. J., Breaux, A. M., & Szumowski, E. K. (1986). Parent-referred problem three-year-olds: Follow-up at school entry. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 27, 473–488.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crnic, K. A., Gaze, C., & Hoffman, C. (2005). Cumulative parenting stress across the preschool period: Relations to maternal parenting and child behaviour at age 5. Infant and Child Development, 14, 117–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crnic, K., & Low, C. (2002). Everyday stresses and parenting. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 5: Practical issues in parenting (2nd ed., pp. 243–267). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, C. E., & Boyle, M. H. (2002). Preschoolers at risk for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and oppositional defiant disorder: Family, parenting, and behavioral correlates. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 555–569.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davies, P. T., & Cummings, E. M. (1994). Marital conflict and child adjustment: An emotional security hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 387–411.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deater-Deckard, K., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1996). Physical discipline among African-American and European-American mothers: Links to children's externalizing behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 32, 1065–1072.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeKlyen, M., Biernbaum, M. A., Greenberg, M. T., & Speltz, M. L. (1998). Fathers and preschool behavior problems. Developmental Psychology, 34, 264–275.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Denham, S. A., Renwick, S. M., & Holt, R. W. (1991). Working and playing together: Prediction of preschool social-emotional competence from mother-child interaction. Child Development, 62, 242–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dodge, K. (2002). Mediation, moderation, and mechanisms in how parenting affects children's aggressive behavior. In J. G. Borkowski, S. L. Ramey, & M. Bristol-Power (Eds.), Parenting and the child's world: Influences on academic, intellectual, and social-emotional development. Monographs in parenting series (pp. 215–229). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • DuPaul, G. J., McGoey, K. E., Eckert, T. L., & VanBrakle J. (2001). Preschool children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Impairment in behavioral, social, and school functioning. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 508–515.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eddy, J. M., Leve, L. D., & Fagot, B. I. (2001). Coercive family processes: A replication and extension of Patterson's Coercion Model. Aggressive Behavior, 27, 14–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flynn, C. P. (1994). Regional differences in attitudes toward corporal punishment. Journal of Marriage & the Family, 56, 314– 324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J. (1994). Family dysfunction and the disruptive behavior disorders: A review of recent empirical findings. Advances in Clinical Child Psychology, 16, 203–226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, F. E. M. (1989). Inconsistent Parenting: Is there evidence for a link with children's conduct problems? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 17, 223–233.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, L. H., Harvey, E. A., Friedman-Weieneth, J. L., Pierce, C. P., Tellert, A., & Sippel, J. C. (2006). Examining subtypes of behavior problems among 3-year-old children, Part II: Investigating differences in parent psychopathology, couple conflict, and other family stressors. Manuscript submitted for publication.

  • Grych, J. H., & Fincham, F. D. (1990). Marital conflict and children's adjustment: A cognitive-contextual framework. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 267–290.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harkness, S., & Super, C. M. (1994). The developmental niche: A theoretical framework for analyzing the household production of health. Social Science & Medicine, 38, 217–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harvey, E. A., Friedman-Weieneth, J. L., Goldstein, L. H., & Sherman, A. (2006). Examining subtypes of behavior problems among 3-year-old children, Part I: Investigating vilidity of subtypes and biological risk factors. Manuscript submitted for publication.

  • Horn, I. B., Joseph, J. G., & Cheng, T. L. (2004). Nonabusive physical punishment and child behavior among African-American children: A systematic review. Journal of the National Medical Association, 96, 1162–1168.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, C. (1996). Parent characteristics and parent-child interactions in families of non-problem children and ADHD children with higher and lower levels of oppositional-defiant behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 85–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, C., & Mash, E. J. (2001). Families of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Review and recommendations for future research. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 4, 183–207.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, C., Murray, C., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2002). Responsiveness in interactions of mothers and sons with ADHD: Relations to maternal and child characteristics. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 77–88.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kashdan, T. B., Jacob, R. G., & Pelham, W. E. (2004). Depression and anxiety in parents of children with ADHD and varying levels of oppositional defiant behaviors: Modeling relationships with family functioning. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 169–181.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keenan, K., & Wakschlag, L. S. (2000). More than the terrible twos: The nature and severity of behavior problems in clinic-referred preschool children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 33–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keenan, K., & Wakschlag, L. S. (2004). Are oppositional defiant and conduct disorder symptoms normative behaviors in preschoolers? A comparison of referred and nonreferred children. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 356–358.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kendziora, K. T., & O'Leary, S. G. (1993). Dysfunctional parenting as a focus for prevention and treatment of child behavior problems. In T. H. Ollendick & R. J. Prinz (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology, 15 (pp. 175–206). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keppel, G., & Wickens, T. D. (2004). Design & Analysis: A Researcher's Handbook. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keown, L. J., & Woodward, L. J. (2002). Early parent–child relations and family functioning of preschool boys with pervasive hyperactivity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 541–553.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kilgore, K., Snyder, J., & Lentz, C. (2000). The contribution of parental discipline, parental monitoring, and school risk to early-onset conduct problems in African American boys and girls. Developmental Psychology, 36, 835–845.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lahey, B. B., Pelham, W. E., Stein, M. A., Loney, J., Trapani, C., Nugent, K., et al. (1998). Validity of DSM-IV attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder for younger children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 695–703.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lamb, M. E. (1997). The role of the father in child development (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons (416)

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindahl, K. M. (1998). Family process variables and children's disruptive behavior problems. Journal of Family Psychology, 12, 420–436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loeber, R. (1990). Developmental and risk factors of juvenile antisocial behavior and delinquency. Clinical Psychology Review, 10, 1–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E. (1990). Juvenile delinquency and attention deficit disorder: boys' developmental trajectories from age 3 to age 15. Child Development, 61, 893–910.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E. (1993). The neuropsychology of conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 135–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, G. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, G. R. (1986). Performance models for antisocial boys. American Psychologist, 41, 432–444.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, G. R., Forgatch, M. S., Yoeger, K. L., & Stoolmiller, M. (1998). Variables that initiate and maintain an early-onset trajectory for juvenile offending. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 531–547.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pfiffner, L. J., McBurnett, K., & Rathouz, P. J. (2005). Family correlates of oppositional and conduct disorders in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 551–563.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Phares, V. (1992). Where's poppa? The relative lack of attention to the role of fathers in child and adolescent psychopathology. American Psychologist, 47, 656–664.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Phares, V., Fields, S., Kamboukos, D., & Lopez, E. (2005). Still looking for poppa. American Psychologist, 60, 735–736.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rickel, A. U., & Biasatti, L. L. (1982). Modification of the block child rearing practices report. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38, 129–134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rothbaum, F., Rosen, K. S., Pott, M., & Beatty, M. (1995). Early parent-child relationships and later problem behavior: A longitudinal study. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 41, 133–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rothbaum, F., & Weisz, J. R. (1994). Parental caregiving and child externalizing behavior in nonclinical samples: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 55–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seipp, C. M., & Johnston, C. (2005). Mother-son interactions in families of boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder with and without oppositional behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 87–98.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, D. S., & Bell, R. Q. (1993). Developmental theories of parental contributors to antisocial behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 21, 493–518.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, D. S., Keenan, K., & Vondra, J. I. (1994). Developmental precursors of externalizing behavior: Ages 1 to 3. Developmental Psychology, 30, 355–365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shelton, T. L., Barkley, R. A., Crosswait, C., Moorehouse, M., Fletcher, K., Barrett, S. et al. (1998). Psychiatric and psychological morbidity as a function of adaptive disability in preschool children with aggressive and hyperactive-impulsive-inattention behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26, 475–494.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stormont-Spurgin, M., & Zentall, S. S. (1995). Contributing factors in the manifestation of aggression in preschoolers with hyperactivity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36, 491–509.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stormshak, E. A., Bierman, K. L., McMahon, R. J., & Lengua, L. J. (2000). Parenting practices and child disruptive behavior problems in early elementary school. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29, 17–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, E. A., Schachar, R., Thorley, G., & Wieselberg, M. (1986). Conduct disorder and hyperactivity: I. Separation of hyperactivity and antisocial conduct in British child psychiatric patients. British Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 760–767.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Webster-Stratton, C. (1990). Stress: A potential disruptor of parent perceptions and family interactions. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 19, 302–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wells, K. C., Epstein, J. N., Hinshaw, S. P., Conners, C. K., Klaric, J., Abikoff, H. B., et al. (2000). Parenting and family stress treatment outcomes in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): An empirical analysis in the MTA Study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 543–553.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whaley, A. L. (2000). Sociocultural differences in the developmental consequences of the use of physical discipline during childhood for African Americans. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 6, 5–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodward, L., Taylor, E., & Dowdney, L. (1998). The parenting and family functioning of children with hyperactivity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 161–169.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This study was supported by National Institute of Mental Health Grant R01MH60132. These data were presented at the Society for Research on Child Development in April, 2003, in Tampa, FL. We are grateful to the families who participated in this study and to staff from physicians' offices and community centers who assisted in recruiting families. Thanks also to the many graduate and undergraduate research assistants who assisted with data collection.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts, Tobin Hall, 135 Hicks Way, 01003, Amherst, MA, USA

    Lauren H. Goldstein, Elizabeth A. Harvey & Julie L. Friedman-Weieneth

Authors
  1. Lauren H. Goldstein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Elizabeth A. Harvey
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Julie L. Friedman-Weieneth
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Elizabeth A. Harvey.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Goldstein, L.H., Harvey, E.A. & Friedman-Weieneth, J.L. Examining Subtypes of Behavior Problems Among 3-Year-Old Children, Part III: Investigating Differences in Parenting Practices and Parenting Stress. J Abnorm Child Psychol 35, 125–136 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-006-9047-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-006-9047-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation